Table 1 Effects of eccentric training on prediabetic/diabetic subjects

Postmenopausal female

16

(10)

Impaired glucose tolerance

Eccentric cycling

Progressive from 5’ to 20’ during the first 4 weeks, then 20–30’

Progressive RPE from 7 to 13 during the first 3 weeks, then 13

3x/

week

for 12

weeks

Non-exercised control

Diff. between pre- and postexercise values (% or mean) vs controls:

leg lean soft tissue mass↑,

quadriceps strength↑,

6-min walking distance↑,

abdominal fat ↔ ,

fasting plasma glucose ↔ , insulin ↔ , insulin sensitivity ↔ 

[53]

Males

females

10

(5)

Impaired glucose tolerance

Eccentric cycling

Progressive from 5’/day to 6 × 5’/day

RPE in the range of 12–14

4-5x/

week

for 2

weeks

Concentric diabetic group

vs pre-exercise value:

fasting plasma glucose↑,

glucose tolerance ↔ ,

insulin ↔ , HOMA ↔ 

vs concentric diabetic:

insulin↑

[54]

Males

16

(8)

Impaired fasting glucose and/or glucose tolerance

Downhill walking

Mean walking time was 68’/day

RPE mean was 8.8

3x/

week

for 3

weeks

Uphill walking

vs pre-exercise value:

BMI ↔ , lean body mass ↔ , fasting glucose ↔ , glucose tolerance ↔ , HOMA-IR ↔ , cholesterol ↔ , triacylglycerol ↔ 

[55]

Males

5

(5)

Impaired fasting glucose and/or glucose tolerance

Downhill walking at low-altitude

Mean walking time was 69’/day

RPE mean was 8.9

3x/

week

for 3

weeks

Same persons 1 year later;

downhill walking at moderate altitude

vs pre-exercise value:

blood glucose level ↔ , BMI ↔ , max heart rate ↔ (in both groups); max power output↑ (at low-altitude), antioxidant capacity↑ (at moderate altitude)

[56]

Male & female

15

(7)

Type II diabetes

Eccentric stepper + aerobic exercise

Progressive from 5’ to 20’ during the first 4 weeks, then 20–30’

Progressive from RPE 7 to 13 during the first 3 weeks, then 13

3x/

week

for 16

weeks

Aerobic exercise

Compared to pre-exercise value: HbA1c↓,

thigh intramuscular fat↓,

thigh lean tissue↑, BMI↓,

6-min walking distance↑

Compared to aerobic exercise alone group:

thigh lean tissue↑, BMI↓

[42]

Male & female

7

(7)

Type II diabetes

Eccentric stepper

Progressive from 3’ to 15’ during the first 4 weeks, than 15–30’

Progressive from RPE 7 to 13 during the first 4 weeks, than 13

3x

(week1 2x)/

week

for 16

weeks

No other group

Compared to pre-exercise value:

insulin sensitivity↑,

thigh muscle size^b↑,

muscle glucose uptake^b↑,

GLUT4↑, fasting plasma glucose ↔ , insulin ↔ 

[57]

-

28

(14)

Type II diabetes

Running on treadmill with slope—4°

20’ (+ additional 5–5’ warm-up and cool-down)

70% to 75% of maximum heartbeat

3x/

week

for 8

weeks

Running on treadmill + 4° slope (concentric)

vs pre-exercise value:

6-min walk distance↑, blood glucose↓, HbA1c↓, lipids^c↓

vs concentric group:

6-min walk distance↑,

blood glucose↓, HbA1c↓

[58, 59]

Postmenopausal females

15

(12)

Type II diabetes

Treadmill with slope—6° before or after meals

40-min bout exercise

RPE mean was 10 before-meal and 11 after-meal groups

-,

-

Sedentary;

treadmill with slope + 6° before or after meals

After-meal exercise

vs sedentary:

postprandial insulin↓, HOMA-IR↓, osteogenic markers↑

Before-meal exercise vs sedentary:

postprandial insulin ↔ , HOMA-IR ↔ , osteogenic markers ↔ 

[60]

Male and female

18

(9)

Type II diabetes

Cybex resistance machines; lower the weight and resist against muscle lengthening

2–3 sets of 10 repetitions; each repetition was slow controlled pace of 5-s

Progressive load from 10 to 100%

2x/

week

for 12 weeks

Concentric-only;

only raise or lift the weights

Compared to pre-exercise value:

fasting plasma glucose ↔ , HbA1c ↔ , insulin ↔ , HOMA-2 IR ↔ ,

cholesterol ↔ , triacylglycerol ↔ , BMI ↔ , waist ↓, hip ↔ , waist-hip ↓,

total body fat % ↓, total body lean mass ↑, 6-min walking distance↑,

5-rep chair rise time ↓, 3-m timed up-and-go time ↓

upper- and lower-body strength ↑

Compared to concentric-only group:

no difference in above listed parameters

[61]