Table 1 Overview of the included articles (n = 64), categorized by sport and distance

Foster et al. [47]

Cycling

1500-m

9 (7 male)

Three trials, a minimum of 48 h apart

Experienced cyclists and speed-skaters (training 10 h/week)

Corbett et al. [48]

Cycling

2-km

9 (9 male)

Three trials within 2 week period

Novices

Menting et al. [49]

Cycling

2-km

10 (7 male)

15.8 ± 1.0

Four trials, within 6 weeks

Novices

Konings et al. [50]

Cycling

4-km

12 (?)

Four trials, 7 days apart

Experienced cyclists (≥ 2 years)

Ansley et al. [51]^a

Cycling

4-km

7 (7 male)

Three consecutive trials, 17 min apart

Experienced cyclists (training 400–800 km/week)

Williams et al. [52]

Cycling

4-km

22 (22 male)

Two consecutive trials, 17 min apart

Novices

Mauger et al. [53]

Cycling

4-km

18 (18 male)

Four consecutive trials, 17 min apart

Experienced cyclists (training 11.5 ± 3.5 h/week, 1 competition per week)

Mauger et al. [54]

Cycling

4-km and 6-km

16 (16 male)

Four consecutive trials, 17 min apart

Experienced cyclists (training 12 ± 3 h/week, 1 competition per week)

Jones et al. [55]

Cycling

16.1-km

20 (20 male)

Three trials within 3 weeks (2–7 days apart)

Experienced cyclists (> 1 year)

Jeukendrup et al. [56]

Cycling

16-km

12 (12 male)

Two trials, 7–14 days apart

Experienced cyclists (training 3x/week, > 1 competition per year)

Boya et al. [57]

Cycling

16.1-km

20 (20 male)

Two trials within a 6–11-day period

∙ Experienced cyclists (14.1 ± 13 years, training 8.5 ± 2.1 h/week)

∙ Novices

Whitehead et al. [58]

Cycling

16.1-km

20 (20 male)

∙ Experienced cyclists (> 2 years)

∙ Novices

Martin et al. [59]^a

Cycling

20-min (14.8 ± 0.6 km)

(11.8 ± 0.6 km)

11 (11 male)

9 (9 male)

∙ More experienced cyclists (> 5 years)

∙ Less experienced cyclists (~ 2 years)

Marquet et al. [60]

Cycling

20-km

21 (21 male)

Two trials separated by a 1-week training program

Experienced cyclists (≥ 3 years, training ≥ 12 h/week)

Micklewright et al. [61]

Cycling

20-km

29 (29 male)

Three trials, 3–7 days apart

Experienced cyclists (> 2 years, 6.1 ± 5.2 years)

Hibbert et al. [62]

Cycling

20-km

30 (12 male)

Seven trials, minimum of 48 h apart

Novices

Schmit et al. [63]

Cycling

20-km

22 (22 male)

Two trials, 11 ± 4 days apart

Experienced triathletes (≥ 3 years, training 7 sessions/week)

Micklewright et al. [64]

Cycling

Running

5-km

100-km

20 (15 male)

34 (32 male)

∙ Novice

∙ Experienced runners (5.6 ± 8.9 ultramarathons in past 2 years, training 61.4 ± 23.0 km/week)

Foster et al. [65]

A: Cycling

B: Rowing

C: Rowing

D: Cycling

A: 3-km

B: 2-km

C: 2-km

D: 10-km

?

A: six trials, 2–3 days apart

B: three trials, 2–3 days apart

C: Two sets of two trials, one month of training program apart

D: three trials

Novices

Cerasola et al. [66]

Rowing

1000-m

96 (48 male)

17–18

Experienced rowers (competing in Youth Olympic Games)

Filipas et al. [67]

Rowing

1500-m

18 (11 male)

11 ± 1.06

Experienced rowers (1.5 ± 0.85 years of rowing experience)

Kennedy and Bell [68]

Rowing

2-km

38 (19 male)

Two trials, a 10-week training program (4 rowing, 2 strength sessions per week) apart

A mixed group of experienced (> 1 year) and novice (< 1 year) rowers

Dimakopoulou et al. [69]

Rowing

2-km

15 (15 male)

15.37 ± 1.34

Experienced rowers (training seven sessions per week)

Schabort et al. [70]^a

Rowing

2-km

8 (8 male)

16.0 ± 0.7

Three trials, 3 days apart

Novices

Hanon and Gajer [71]

Running

400 m

30 (15 female)

∙ World-class

∙ National

∙ Regional

Blasco-Lafarga et al. [33]

Running

600-m and 2 × 4 × 200-m

9 (9 male)

10 (10 male)

17.00 ± 0.66

25.29 ± 4.32

∙ More experienced

∙ Less experienced

Micklewright et al. [72]

Running

450-m

600-m

750-m

900-m

26 (15 male)

29 (15 male)

27 (14 male)

24 (16 male)

5.6 ± 0.5

8.7 ± 0.5

11.8 ± 0.4

14.0 ± 0.0

Novice schoolchildren

Chinnasamy et al. [73]

Running

750-m

36 (19 male)

12.6 ± 0.5

Two trials

Novice schoolchildren

Lambrick et al. [74]

Running

800-m

13 (8 male)

10.3 ± 0.7 (male)

10.6 ± 0.5 (female)

Four trials, on four separate days

Novice schoolchildren

Green et al. [75]

Running

3 × 800-m

12 (?)

16 (?)

∙ Collegiate

∙ Recreational

Watkins et al. [76]

Running

4-min (~ 1100 m)

10 (5 male)

Five trials, at least 3 days apart

Experienced (recreational level, training 4 ± 1 run sessions/week)

Diaz et al. [77]

Running

3-km

9 (9 male)

6 (6 male)

15.2 ± 0.7

24 ± 5.6

Two trials, one competitive season apart

∙ More experienced (8.1 ± 2 years)

∙ Less experienced (18 ± 8 months)

Deaner and Lowen [78]

Cross-country running

5-km

3948 (2032 male)

14–19

Experienced (competing in Virginia State Championships 5 km meet)

Stevens et al. [79]

Running

5-km

17 (17 male)

Two trials, 5–10 days apart

Experienced

Couto et al. [80]

Running

10-km

19 (19 male)

15 ± 2

Experienced (36 months (12–48 months))

Knechtle et al. [81]

Running

42.2-km

1 (1 male)

15.3

Experienced

Santos-Lozano et al. [82]

Running

42.2-km

190,228 (129,912 male)

∙ More experienced (professionals)

∙ Less experienced (amateurs)

Trubee et al. [83]

Running

42.2-km

32,121 (20,053 male)

∙ Experienced (elite)

∙ Less experienced (non-elite)

Deaner et al. [84]

Running

42.2-km

2929 (1676 male)

∙ More experienced runners

∙ Less experienced runners (total number of races, total number of marathons, personal bests for the 5 K and marathon, and earliest year with a recorded race)

Morais et al. [85]

Swimming

50-m

86 (86 male)

15–18

Experienced (European Junior Championships)

Dormehl and Osborough [86]

Swimming

100-m and 200-m

112 (56 male)

14.44 ± 0.69

16.98 ± 0.84

Experienced (competing at international schools swimming championships, 49.6- 96.8% of the junior world record)

Skorski et al. [87]

Swimming

200-m and 400-m and 800-m

16 (9 male)

16.9 ± 2.1

Two trials, 7 days apart

Regional to national level (training 34.7 ± 5.6 km/week)

Skorski et al. [88]

Swimming

400-m

15 (10 male)

18 ± 2 (14–23)

Competing at national level or higher (≥ 4 years of training)

Turner et al. [89]

Swimming

7 × 200-m incremental test

8 (8 male)

15 ± 1

Four trials, 1 week, 9 weeks and 20 weeks apart

Competing at national level (> 6 years of training)

Scruton et al. [90]^a

Swimming

7 × 200-m incremental test

15 (?)

15 ± 1.5

Two trials, within 3–4 days

Regional level (26–33 km/week)

McGibbon et al. [91]

Swimming

1500 m

89 (89 male)

102 (102 male)

70 (70 male)

67 (67 male)

< 17

18–19

20–21

22 < 

Experienced (top 100 of FINA world rankings)

Barbosa et al. [92]

Triathlon

Sprint

Olympic

5902 (3196 male)

3314 (2225 male)

17 ± 2

21 ± 2

Experienced (World Triathlon Series)

Wiersma et al. [93]

Long-track speed skating

1500-m

104 (104 male)

15.25 ± 0.55

17.25 ± 0.55

19.25 ± 0.55

Five competitive seasons (three measurement points)

Experienced (8–20 races at the start of the study)

∙ More experienced

∙ Less experienced (1500-m races completed)

Stoter et al. [94]

Long-track speed skating

1500-m

120 (56 male)

17.6 ± 1.1

To trials, at least one year apart (subgroup of 12 [7 male] skaters were included in longitudinal analyses)

Experienced (national and international level)

Menting et al. [95]

Short-track speed skating

1500-m

224 (72 male)

1256 (665 male)

1687 (1132 male)

6556 (2691 male)

 < 17

 < 19

 < 21

Senior (> 21)

Experienced (competing in junior and senior international competitions)

Menting et al. [96]

Short-track speed skating

1500-m

140 (140 male)

15.19 ± 0.26

16.11 ± 0.29

17.05 ± 0.29

18.03 ± 0.31

18.97 ± 0.31

19.56 ± 0.03

Six competitive seasons (six measurement points)

Experienced (competing in the Junior World Championships)

Sollie et al. [97]

Cross-country skiing

4.3-km

13.1-km

11 (11 male)

8 (8 male)

14.4 ± 0.5

22.6 ± 4.3

Experienced (national level)

Formenti et al. [98]

Cross-country skiing

10-km

11 (11 male)

16.45 ± 1.67

Regional and national (training 12–15 h/week)

Carlsson et al. [99]

Cross-country skiing

90-km

9691 (8788 male)

∙ More experienced (> 3 years)

∙ Less experienced (< 4 years)

Alves et al. [100]

Race walking

10-km and 20-km

29 (14 males)

∙ More experienced (49–240 months)

∙ Less experienced (5–48 months)

Sealey et al. [101]

Outrigger canoeing

1-km

11 (0 male)

Four trials within 2 weeks

Experienced rowers (> 2 years) (training 4–11 sessions/week)

Moss et al. [102]

Cross-country

Mountain biking

86-km

8182 (7178 male)

16.5–65 + 

∙ More experienced

∙ Less experienced cyclists (previous races completed)

Sampson et al. [103]

Rugby league

24-min small sided games

16 (16 male)

14.9 ± 0.5

Amateur level

Johnston et al. [104]

Rugby league

Tournament

28 (28 male)

16.6 ± 0.5

Amateur level

Christi et al. [105]

Cricket

14 shuttle sprints

24 (24 male)

∙ More experienced (early in batting line-up)

∙ Less experienced (late in batting line-up)

Moss and Twist [106]

Handball

Repeated Shuttle-Sprint and Jump Ability test

8 (8 male)

16.1 ± 1.0

National level

Burdon et al. [107]

Exercise circuit

Tasks 1–4: < 15-min

Tasks 5–6: < 2 min

35 (17 male)

Three trials, within 10 days with 24 h separating each trial

Novice

Gross et al. [108]

Alpine skiing

90-s box jump test

9 (9 male)

16.8 ± 1.3 (range 16–18)

Two trials, a 8-day HIT block comprising of 10 sessions, apart

Experienced (from an elite sports school)

Reid et al. [109]^a

Elbow flexion maximal voluntary contractions

12 × 5 s

14 (0 male)

15.2 ± 2.1

Novice