Table 5 Combined warm-up including external heat elements (n = 6)

Adams & Psycharakis [5]

8 males (20.1 ± 1.8 y)

Competitive

i) 20 min in-water WU including a freestyle base set, preferred stroke (containing kick, pull, and drills), start and turns, before finishing with a 200 m swim

20 min

ii) No warm-up: sit in a sauna for 20 min

iii) Mixed warm-up: 10 min in-water warm-up and 10 min sauna

20 min

The active and mixed WU conditions were most effective on 100-m individual’s preferred stroke

T100m: i: 61.1 ± 6.4 s; ii: 62.2 ± 5.7 s; iii: 61.4 ± 6.1 s. The HR and RPE were lower after the active warm-up

De Vries [12]

13 males

Competitive

i) swimming (500 yards slowly and continuously)

No rest

ii) hot shower (6 min)

No rest

The warming up by 6 min hot showers had no positive effects

McGowan et al. [44]

6 males & 4 females (20 ± 1 y)

National and international (males: 800 ± 86 FINA points) (females: 813 ± 126 FINA points)

i) Standardized in-water WU of 1,350-m (400-m Freestyle [< 50% HRmax]; 4 × 100 m freestyle [60%HRmax]; 4 × 50 m breaststroke (60%HRmax) (drill; 25-m high; 25-m easy); 100-m freestyle; 2 × 50-m freestyle, personal best + 3-s (hand paddles); 2 × 25-m dive breaststroke (95% HR); 100-m Freestyle (50% HRmax)

30 min seated with the only activity to change into their racing swimsuit

ii) i + 5 min dry-land-based exercise routine [2 × (3 × medicine ball throw downs (2 kg), 3 × 10 s simulated butterfly kicks and 3 × tuck jumps)] wearing heated tracksuit pants with integrated heating elements over the backside and knee

15 min

Sprint 100-m breaststroke start, turn, and finish times were not enhanced after ii compared to i, despite eliciting higher skin temperature immediately before test initiation

T100m: i: 68.6 ± 4.0 s; ii: 68.4 ± 3.9 s (d = -0.05); T15m: i: 7.3 ± 0.6 s; ii: 7.3 ± 0.6 s (d = 0.02); lactate pre time trial: i: 1.4 ± 0.6 mM/L; ii: 1.2 ± 0.3 mM/L (d = -0.35); HR pre time trial: i: 83 ± 18 bpm; ii: 84 ± 14 bpm (d = 0.68); upper body skin temperature pre time trial: i: 31.9 ± 1.4 ºC; ii: 31.1 ± 3.1 ºC; lower body skin temperature: i: 30.0 ± 1.6 ºC; ii: 29.2 ± 1.5ºC

McGowan et al. [47]

11 males & 5 females (16 ± 1 y)

National junior (100 m time: 59.41 ± 3.48 s)

i) Standardized in-water WU (25 min) of 1,300-m (400-m Freestyle (easy); 3 × 100-m medley (100-m: kick, drill, swim); 3 × 100 freestyle (80,90,95% race-pace); 4 × 50-m (15-m race pace, 35-m easy); 4 × 25 m Freestyle (dive start, race pace)

30 min seated with the only activity to change into their racing swimsuit

ii) i + wearing heating elements (Passive);

iii) i + 5 min dry-land-based exercise routine [2 × (3 × medicine ball throw downs (2 kg), 3 × 10 s simulated butterfly kicks and 3 × 0,4 m box jumps)] (Dry-land)

iv) ii + iii (Combo)

15 min

An improvement in 100-m freestyle time-trial performance was demonstrated when dryland-based activation exercises were completed alone (∼0.7%), and in combination with the wearing of a heated tracksuit jacket (∼1.1%). A smaller decline in core temperature during transition was strongly associated with faster time-trial performance

T100m: i: 60.7 ± 3.36 s; ii: 60.37 ± 3.15 s (d 0.12); iii: 60.26 ± 3.50 s (d = 0.18); iv: 59.9 ± 3.7 s (d = -0.27); T15m: i: 7.23 ± 0.17 s; ii: 7.03 ± 0.24 s (d = 0.45); iii: 7.13 ± 0.16 s (d = -0.05); iv: 6.86 ± 0.19 s (d = 0.92); skin temperature: pre time trial: i: 33.1 ± 0.3 ºC; ii: 33.9 ± 0.3 ºC; iii: 33.3 ± 0.3 ºC; iv: 34.3 ± 0.1 ºC; no differences in La⁻ and HR;

McGowan et al. [100]

12 males (20 ± 3 y) 13 females (20 ± 2 y)

International and national-level

(males: 50,8 ± 1,8 s and 791 ± 76 FINA points)

(females: 55.6 ± 1.2 s and 824 ± 56 FINA points)

i) Standardized in-water WU of 1,350-m (400-m Freestyle (< 50% HRmax); 4 × 100 m Freesyle (60%HRmax); 4 × 50-m Freestyle (60%HRmax) (drill; 25-m high; 25-m easy); 100-m Freestyle; 2 × 50 freestyle, personal best + 3 s (hand paddles); 2 × 25-m dive Freestyle (95% HR); 100-m Freestyle (50% HRmax)

30 min seated with the only activity to change into their racing swimsuit

ii) i + 5 min dry-land-based exercise routine [2 × (3 × medicine ball throw downs (2 kg), 3 × 10 s simulated butterfly kicks and 3 × tuck jumps)] wearing heated tracksuit pants with integrated heating elements over the backside and knee

15 min

Combining an in-water WU with the use of heated jackets and dryland activation exercises during the transition phase (15 min) can yield up to a 0.8% or a 0.4 s improvement over the 100 m-freestyle event. Improved maintenance of core temperature in the transition phase as well as augmented local upper-body hemoglobin concentration appeared as key mechanisms contributing to the improvements in overall sprint freestyle performance

T100m: Males: i: 53.7 ± 2.0 s; ii: 53.2 ± 1.5 s; Females: i: 58.9 ± 2.2 s; ii: 58.4 ± 2.0 s; T15m: i: 6.2 ± 0.3 s; ii: 6.1 ± 0.3 s; Females: i: 7.1 ± 0.4 s; ii: 6.9 ± 0.4 s; Turn times were not different between conditions (p = 0.08); Lower body peak impulse was similar between conditions. Lactate before time trial: i: 1.4 ± 0.7 mM/L; ii: 1.4 ± 0.8 (d = -0.07); HR before time trial: i: 82 ± 14 bpm; ii: 83 ± 15 bpm (d = 0.10); upper body skin temperature before time trial: i: 30.2 ± 2.0 ºC; ii: 30.1 ± 2.4 ºC (d = -0.04); lower body skin temperature before time trial: i: 29.4 ± 1.2 ºC; ii: 29.4 ± 1.5 ºC (d = 0,05); RPE increased in ii (d = 0.77); Upper and whole-body thermal sensation increased toward feeling warm (+ 2) in ii (d = 0.61 – 1.18); Total hemoglobin concentration: i: 30 ± 18; ii: 81 ± 25 (d = 1.45)

Wilkins et al. [13]

12 males (21 ± 1.8 y)

4 females

(20 ± 1.7 y)

Elite; FINA points 651 ± 10; T50m: males: 23.83 ± 0.76; females: 27.15 ± 0.66 (16.7 h/week), 13.3 ± 2.7 years of experience

i) in-water warm-up of 1,600-m as: 400-m freestyle; 200-m Pull; 200-m Kick; 200-m Drill (Fins), 200-m Individual Medley, 4 × 50-m freestyle: 1) Push 15-m underwater fly kick; 2) 15-m spin drill; 3) dive 15-m race pace; 4) dive 25-m race pace, 200-m easy) + 4 plyometric press-ups

30 min seated (without heated jacket)

ii) i + wearing heat jackets during the rest

30 min seated with heated jacket

A 30-min period of upper body external heating post-warm-up leads to a significant improvement in 25 m sprint swimming performance, upper body force and power output

T25m: i: 11.84 ± 1.0 s; ii: 11.72 ± 1.0 s; 50 m: i: 26.51 ± 2.0 s; ii: 26.30 ± 2.1 s; SR: i: 53 ± 2.9 cyc/min; ii: 55 ± 3.7 cyc/min; stroke count: i: 42 ± 4.5; ii: 44 ± 5.0; starting strength in push-up and peak force were greater in ii by 10.1% (p < 0,05) and 10.7% (p = 0,097). No differences in HR and RPE