Table 1 Characteristics of included studies
Study | Study design and setting | Sample | Comparison | Outcome measures |
|---|---|---|---|---|
Adams et al. [43] | Cross-sectional Setting: laboratory, instrumented treadmill Step rate cue: verbal (“increase the number of times your foot hits the ground by 10%”) Speed: self-selected (comfortable) Footwear: not described Additional: running watch used for data collection | 20 recreational runners (running experience, 11.5 ± 6.9 years; average running distance, 37.3 ± 27.8 km/week) | Preferred step rate versus “high cadence” | Kinetics: Peak vertical GRF Braking impulse Average vertical loading rate Instantaneous vertical loading rate Gait: Step rate Vertical oscillation Ground contact time |
Allen et al. [22] | Cross-sectional Setting: laboratory, treadmill Step rate cue: audible and visual metronome Speed: self-selected (moderate intensity) Footwear: participant’s own running shoes | 40 recreational runners (rearfoot strike pattern) (age, 36.0 ± 9.1 years; average running distance, 24.9 ± 20.9 mi/week; male, 17; female, 23) | Preferred step rate versus + 5%, + 10%, + 15% | Gait: Foot strike pattern Foot inclination Step rate |
Baggaley et al. [44] | Cross-sectional Setting: laboratory, instrumented treadmill Step rate cue: audible metronome Speed: predetermined (3.33 m/s) Footwear: standardised (Salomen X-Scream 3d) | 19 recreational runners 10 females (age, 27 ± 10 years; mass, 66.8 ± 6.9 kg), 9 males (age, 28 ± 8 years; mass, 73.7 ± 8.0 kg) | Preferred step rate versus − 10%, + 10%, | Kinetics: Peak sacral acceleration Peak tibial acceleration Negative hip work Negative knee work Negative ankle work Impact attenuation Gait: Step length |
Baumgartner et al. [27] | Randomised controlled trial Setting: laboratory, treadmill (baseline and at 6-week follow-up); overground or treadmill (retraining period) Step rate cue: visual feedback (wristwatch) Speed: self-selected Footwear: participant’s own running shoes | 38 recreational runners. 20 experimental (age, 37.7 ± 9.8 years; mass, 80.5 ± 16.6 kg); 18 controls (age, 39.7 ± 14.8 years; mass, 71.6 ± 12.7 kg) | Experimental: preferred step rate + 10% Control: preferred step rate | Gait: Stride rate Note: data collected at baseline and 6-weeks |
Bonacci et al. [29] | Cross-sectional Setting: laboratory, instrumented treadmill Step rate cue: audible metronome Speed: not described Footwear: standardised (control shoe: Asics Gel Cumulus 16; minimalist shoe: Vibram Seeya) | 15 recreational runners (age, 32.6 ± 9.6 years; mass, 68.9 ± 11.0 kg; average running distance, 15.6 ± 7.4 km/week; female, 12; male, 3) Clinical diagnosis of patellofemoral pain | Preferred step rate versus + 10% | Kinematics: Peak knee flexion angle Kinetics: Peak knee extensor moment Peak patellofemoral joint stress Peak patellofemoral joint reaction force |
Bonacci et al. [28] | Cross-sectional Setting: laboratory, instrumented treadmill Step rate cue: audible metronome Speed: not described Footwear: standardised (control shoe: Asics Gel Cumulus 16; minimalist shoe: Vibram Seeya) | 15 recreational runners (rearfoot strike pattern) (age, 32.6 ± 9.6 years; mass, 68.9 ± 11.0 kg; average running distance, 15.6 ± 7.4 km/week; female, 12; male, 3) Clinical diagnosis of patellofemoral pain | Preferred step rate versus + 10% | Approximate entropy: Hip: flexion/extension, internal rotation/external rotation Knee: flexion/extension, adduction/abduction, internal rotation/external rotation Ankle: dorsiflexion/plantarflexion, inversion/eversion, internal rotation/external rotation |
Bowerstock et al. [30] | Cross-sectional Setting: laboratory, instrumented treadmill Step rate cue: audible metronome Speed: self-selected (equivalent to speed of a 30 min training run) Footwear: standardised (Saucony Progrid Ride) | 19 recreational runners (rearfoot strike pattern) 10 females (age 22.7 ± 2.5 years; mass, 57.8 ± 7.0 kg); 9 males (age, 22.5 ± 3.1 years; mass, 79.9 ± 7.5 kg) | Preferred step rate versus − 10%, + 10% (RFS) Preferred step rate versus − 10%, + 10% (FFS) | Kinetics: Vertical GRF Tibiofemoral joint contact force Peak force Braking GRF Hamstring Peak force Quadriceps peak force Gastrocnemius peak force Hamstring impulse Hamstring impulse/km Quadriceps impulse Quadriceps impulse/km Gastrocnemius impulse Gastrocnemius impulse/km Gait: Step length Stance time |
Bramah et al. [23] | Case series Setting: laboratory, treadmill (baseline); overground or treadmill participant selected (retraining period) Gait retraining programme: 4 weeks Step rate cue: audible metronome (weeks 1–2) and self-monitored using GPS smartwatch (weeks 3–4) Speed: self-selected (preferred) Footwear: participant’s own running shoes | 12 runners with patellofemoral pain (age, 39.9 ± 6.5 years; mass, 61.0 ± 6.5 kg; female, 8; male, 4) | Preferred step rate versus + 10% | Clinical: Worst pain (NRS) Lower Extremity Functional Scale Self-reported longest distance run pain-free Total weekly running volume Kinematics: Peak contralateral pelvic drop Peak hip adduction Peak hip internal rotation Peak knee flexion Gait: Stride rate Note: Data collected at baseline, 4-weeks, and 3-months |
Busa et al. [31] | Cross-sectional Setting: laboratory, instrumented treadmill Step rate cue: audible metronome Speed: self-selected (preferred) Footwear: standardised (T7 Brooks) | 12 recreational runners (age, 29. 7 ± 4.4 years; mass, 72.1 ± 13.9 kg; female, 4; male, 8) | Preferred step rate versus − 20%, − 10%, + 10%, + 20% | Kinetics: Tibial impact acceleration peak Head impact acceleration peak Head active acceleration peak Tibial signal power magnitude Tibial signal power magnitude Head signal power magnitude Head signal power magnitude Shock attenuation active phase magnitude Shock attenuation impact phase magnitude Gait: Step rate |
Chumanov et al. [32] | Cross-sectional Setting: laboratory, instrumented treadmill Step rate cue: audible metronome Speed: self-selected (preferred) Footwear: not described | 45 recreational runners (age, 32.7 ± 15.5 years; mass, 69.5 ± 13.1 kg; female, 20; male, 25; average running distance, 29.8 ± 15.5 mi/wk) | Preferred step rate versus + 5%, + 10% | Electromyography (stance phase: 0–15% GC; 30–50% GC and swing phase: 70–80% GC; 80–90% GC; 90–100% GC): Vastus lateralis Rectus femoris Tibialis anterior Medial gastrocnemius Lateral hamstring Medial hamstring Gluteus maximus Gluteus medius |
Clarke et al. [45] | Cross-sectional Setting: laboratory, treadmill Step rate cue: audible metronome Speed: predetermined (3.8 m/s) Footwear: not described | 10 recreational runners, average running distance (25–135 km/week) | Preferred step rate versus − 10%, − 5%, + 5%, + 10% | Kinematics: Hip (IC) Knee (IC), max after (IC) Ankle (IC) Horizontal foot velocity (IC) Vertical foot velocity (IC) Kinetics: Peak shank deceleration Gait: Step rate Stride length Relative stride Length Flight time Support time |
Connick and Li [46] | Cross-sectional Setting: laboratory, standard treadmill Step rate cue: audible metronome Speed: predetermined (13 km/h) Footwear: not described | 11 trained runners (10 km PB 34.8 min ± 3.1) (age, 26.4 ± 7.1 years; mass 68.5 ± 8.3 kg; male, 11) | Preferred step rate versus − 8%, − 4%, + 4%, + 8% | Electromyography: Bicep femoris Vastus lateralis Gastrocnemius |
Dewolf and De Jaeger [24] | Cross-sectional Setting: laboratory, instrumented treadmill Step rate cue: audible metronome Speed: predetermined speed (12 and 14 km/h) Footwear: not described | 20 runners (age, 22.1 ± 2.2 years; mass, 72.6 ± 11 kg; male, 15; female, 5) | Preferred step rate versus − 10% (14 km/h) | |
dos Santos et al. [34] | Cross-sectional Setting: laboratory, instrumented treadmill Step rate cue: audible metronome Speed: self-selected (comfortable) Footwear: standardised (Asics Gel-Eq. 5) | 31 recreational runners (rearfoot strike pattern) (age, 27.7 ± 5.4 years; mass 72.1 ± 0.1 kgs; average running distance, 35.7 ± 18.3 km/week; female, 11; male, 20) | Preferred step rate versus + 10% | Kinematics (IC, average stance, peak stance): Trunk: flexion Hip: internal rotation, adduction, abduction, flexion Knee: external rotation, adduction, abduction, flexion Ankle: plantarflexion, dorsiflexion |
dos Santos et al. [33] | Cross-sectional Setting: laboratory, instrumented treadmill Step rate cue: audible metronome Speed: self-selected (preferred) Footwear: not described | 19 recreational runners (rearfoot strike pattern) (age, 28.1 ± 5.0 years; average running distance, 26.6 ± 8.9 km/week; female, 11; male, 8) | Preferred step rate versus + 10% | Kinematics: Foot strike angle Trunk flexion angle Peak knee flexion during stance phase Kinetics: Peak GRF Peak patellofemoral joint stress Patellofemoral joint stress-time integral Hip extensor moment (SP) Plantarflexion moment (SP) Peak knee extensor moment (SP) Gait: Step length Step rate Number of steps per km |
Garofolini et al. [58] | Cross-sectional Setting: laboratory, instrumented treadmill Step rate cue: real-time biofeedback; vertical bar graph Speed: 11 km/h Footwear: standardised (neutral shoe provided) | 20 active males (age, 28.1 ± 2.8 years; mass, 75.8 ± 5.7 kgs) | Preferred step rate versus + 10 to + 15% | Kinetics: Loading rate Gait: Step rate Foot strike angle |
Gerrard and Bonanno [35] | Cross-sectional Setting: laboratory, instrumented treadmill Step rate cue: audible and visual metronome Speed: self-selected (equivalent to 20 min of moderate intensity) Footwear: participant’s own running shoes | 32 recreational runners (age, 28.2 ± 8.0 years; mass, 67.5 ± 13.8 kg; average running distance 30.4 ± 2 4.4 km/week; female, 16; male, 16) | Preferred step rate versus − 10%, − 5%, + 5%, + 10% | Kinetics: Max force Peak pressure Contact area Gait: Contact time |
Hafer et al. [47] | Cross-sectional Setting: laboratory, overground (30 m runway) Step rate cue: audible metronome Speed: self-selected (comfortable) Footwear: standardised (New Balance 1062) | 10 recreational runners (rearfoot strike pattern) (age, 32.7 ± 7.5 years; mass, 63.9 ± 7.0 kg; female, 8; male, 2) | Preferred step rate versus + 10% | Kinematics: Excursion (ROM during stance phase) / angle (peak ROM) / time (% of gait cycle when peak angle occurred) Knee: flexion, internal rotation Shank: internal rotation Rearfoot: eversion Segment coordination (terminal swing; early stance; mid stance; late stance) Sagittal thigh rotation versus sagittal shank rotation Sagittal thigh rotation versus transverse shank rotation Transverse thigh rotation versus transverse shank rotation Transverse shank rotation versus frontal rearfoot rotation Coordination variability (terminal swing; early stance; mid stance; late stance) Sagittal thigh rotation versus sagittal shank rotation Sagittal thigh rotation versus transverse shank rotation Transverse thigh rotation versus transverse shank rotation Transverse shank rotation versus frontal rearfoot rotation |
Halvorsen et al. [48] | Cross-sectional Setting: laboratory, treadmill Step rate cue: visual and audible feedback for initial instructions, and audible feedback only for running trials Speed: set speed 16 km/h (12-14 km/h for familiarisation and warm-up) Footwear: not described | 16 national level competitive runners, triathletes and orienteers (age, 28 ± 5 years; mass, 71.7 ± 5.7 kg; male, 16) | Preferred step rate versus − 10%, − 5% | Performance VO2 Blood lactate RPE (BORG scale) |
Heiderscheit et al. [49] | Cross-sectional Setting: laboratory, instrumented treadmill Step rate cue: audible metronome Speed: self-selected (equivalent to moderate intensity run) Footwear: not described | 45 recreational runners (age, 32.7 ± 15.5 years; mass, 69.5 ± 13.1 kg; average running distance 29.8 ± 15.5 km/week; female, 20; male, 25) | Preferred step rate versus − 10%, − 5%, + 5%, + 10% | Kinematics: Hip: peak flexion angle, peak adduction angle, peak internal rotation angle Knee: IC flexion angle, peak flexion angle Ankle: IC foot inclination COM vertical excursion Kinetics: Hip: IC extension moment and peak abduction moment, peak internal rotation moment, negative and positive work Knee: peak extension moment, negative and positive work Peak vertical GRF Braking impulse Impact transient occurrence Gait: Step length Stance duration Initial contact COM – heel distance Additional: RPE |
Hobara et al. [25] | Cross-sectional Setting: laboratory, instrumented treadmill Step rate cue: audible metronome Speed: predetermined (2.5 m/s) Footwear: not described | 10 recreational runners (age, 28.8 ± 3.0 years; mass, 71.5 ± 9.3 kg; male, 10) | Preferred step rate versus − 30%, − 15%, + 15%, + 30% | Kinetics: Vertical GRF Vertical average loading rate Vertical impact peak Vertical instantaneous loading rate |
Huang et al. [50] | Cross-sectional Setting: laboratory, instrumented treadmill Step rate cue: audible metronome Speed: self-selected Footwear: participant’s own running shoes | 19 recreational runners (15 midfoot strike pattern, 4 rearfoot strike pattern) (age, 21.7 ± 2.6 years; mass, 68.5 ± 6.3 kg; male, 19) | Preferred step rate versus + 10% | Kinetics: Peak tibial acceleration Vertical impact peak GRF Vertical average loading rate Vertical instantaneous loading rate Additional: Awkwardness (VAS) Effort (VAS) |
Hunter and Smith [42] | Cross-sectional Setting: laboratory; instrumented treadmill Step rate cue: computer-based metronome Speed: individual 60 min maximal run pace Footwear: not described | 16 recreational runners (age, 28 ± 8 years; mass, 70.4 ± 10.5 kg; female, 5; male, 11) | Preferred step rate versus − 4%, − 8%, + 4%, + 8% | VO2 Stride frequency Stiffness |
Lenhart et al. [51] | Cross-sectional Setting: laboratory, instrumented treadmill Step rate cue: audible metronome Speed: self-selected (preferred) Footwear: not described | 30 recreational runners (age, 33 ± 14 years; mass, 68.6 ± 10.9 kg; female, 15; male, 15) | Preferred step rate versus − 10%, + 10% | Data not provided Kinematics: Knee flexion angle Peak knee flexion angle, knee flexion at IC Kinetics: Patellofemoral force Peak patellofemoral force Patellofemoral stance phase loading rate Peak patellofemoral loading rate Peak vertical GRF Additional: Peak muscle force Vastus lateralis Rectus femoris Soleus Patellar tendon Tibialis anterior Biceps femoris Semimembranosus Medial gastrocnemius (0–40%; 80–99%) Gluteus medius (0–40%; 80–99%) Gluteus maximus (0–40%; 80–99%) 0–40% = late stance / early swing 80–99% = late swing |
Lenhart et al. [36] | Cross-sectional Setting: laboratory, instrumented treadmill Step rate cue: audible metronome Speed: self-selected (preferred) Footwear: not described | 30 recreational runners (age, 33 ± 14 years; mass, 68.6 ± 10.9 kg; female, 15; male, 15) | Preferred step rate versus − 10%, + 10% | Kinetics: Positive and Negative Work Biceps femoris long head Semimembranosus Gluteus maximus Gluteus medius Gluteus minimus Tensor fasciae latae Rectus femoris Sartorius Psoas Iliacus Adductor magnus Adductor brevis Adductor longus Piriformis Performance Peak muscle forces Stance and late swing Biceps femoris long head Semimembranosus Gluteus maximus Gluteus medius Stance and early swing and late swing Glutes minimus Piriformis Early swing Tensor fasciae latae Sartorius Psoas Iliacus Adductor brevis Adductor longus Stance Adductor magnus Stance and early swing Rectus femoris |
Lenhart et al. [52] | Cross-sectional Setting: laboratory, instrumented treadmill Step rate cue: audible metronome speed: self-selected (preferred) Footwear: not described | 22 recreational runners (mass, 71.0 ± 8.8 kg; average running distance 45.5 ± 24.1 km/week; female, 7; male, 15) | Preferred step rate versus − 10%, + 10% | Kinetics: Patellofemoral joint contact force Patellofemoral joint contact area loading rate Patellofemoral joint contact pressure loading rate |
Lieberman et al. [37] | Cross-sectional Setting: laboratory, instrumented treadmill Step rate cue: audible metronome Speed: predetermined (3.0 m/s) Footwear: not described | 14 recreational runners (mass, 72.9 ± 11.6 kg; female, 2; male, 12) | Step rates: 75, 80, 85, 90, 95 strides/min | Kinematics: Max hip flexion Landing position of foot relative to hip Landing position of foot relative to knee Kinetics: Impact peak GRF Braking impulse Vertical loading rate Maximum hip flexion moment Additional: Cost of transport |
Mercer et al. [53] | Cross-sectional Setting: laboratory, treadmill Step rate cue: audible metronome Speed: 3 set running speeds: 3.13 m/s, 3.58 m/s, 4.02 m/s Footwear: not described | 10 well-trained runners (age, 23.0 ± 5.0 years; mass, 66.3 ± 8.8 kg; female, 4; male, 6) | Preferred step rate versus − 15%, + 15% (at 3 different pre − determined running speeds) | VO2 |
Morin et al. [54] | Cross-sectional Setting: laboratory, instrumented treadmill Step rate cue: audible metronome Speed: predetermined (3.33 m/s) Footwear: not described | 10 recreational runners (age, 28.6 ± 6.4 years; mass, 75.6 ± 10.4 kg; male, 10) | Preferred step rate versus − 30%, + 30% | Kinematics: Downward displacement of COM Kinetics: Vertical GRF (max) Leg compression Vertical stiffness Leg stiffness Gait: Contact time Aerial time Duty factor |
Neal et al. [55] | Case series Setting: laboratory, instrumented treadmill Gait retraining programme: 18 sessions over 6 weeks Step rate cue: audible metronome (faded feedback) used in sessions 1–12. No feedback provided in sessions 13–18 Speed: self-selected (preferred) Footwear: participant’s own running shoes | 10 runners with patellofemoral pain (age, 31.6 ± 5.5 years; mass, 67.7 ± 9.8 kg; average running distance, 17.0 ± 9.8 km/week; female, 6; male, 4) | Preferred step rate versus + 7.5% | Clinical: Average pain (NRS) Worst pain (NRS) Kujala Scale (function) Kinematics: Peak contralateral pelvic drop Peak hip adduction Peak hip internal rotation Peak hip flexion Peak knee flexion Electromyography: Gluteus maximus Gluteus medius Semitendinosus Vastus medialis oblique Gait: Step rate Note: Data collected at baseline and 6-weeks. Biomechanical data not included in this review as only available for n = 9 |
Quinn et al. [56] | Case–control study Setting: laboratory, treadmill Step rate cue: audible metronome Speed: 3.4 to 3.8 m/s Footwear: participant’s own running shoes | 22 well-trained female runners (step rate < 176 steps/min) 11 experimental (age, 22.9 ± 5.0 years; mass, 58.1 ± 8.3 kg; 5 k PB 19.8 ± 1.4 min); 11 controls (age, 21.3 ± 1.4 years; mass, 58.0 ± 2.5 kg; 5 k PB 19.9 ± 1.6 min) | Preferred step rate versus 180 steps/minute | Gait: Step frequency Step length Additional: RE VO2 max Ventilation Heart rate Note: Data collected at baseline and 12-days |
Swinnen et al. [26] | Cross-sectional Setting: laboratory, instrumented treadmill Step rate cue: audible metronome Speed: self-selected and 12kmp/h Footwear: not described | 17 experienced runners (age, 23.7 ± 3.8 years; mass, 69.1 ± 7.7 kg; female, 4; male, 13) | Preferred step rate versus − 15%, − 8%, + 8%, + 15% | Kinetics: Average positive ankle power Average positive knee power Average positive hip power Gait: Stride frequency Step length Ground contact time Duty factor Additional: Metabolic energy consumption Muscle activation |
Wang et al. [38] | Randomised controlled trial Setting: laboratory, treadmill and 10 m runway (baseline testing); overground (retraining programme) Step rate cue: audible metronome Speed: 3.33 m/s (baseline testing); self-selected (retraining programme) Footwear: standardised (Nike Pegasus 34) | 30 recreational male runners (rearfoot strike pattern) 12 experimental (age, 23.6 ± 7.5 years; mass, 71.8 ± 4.9 kg); 12 controls (age, 23.7 ± 1.2 years; mass, 70.8 ± 7.3 kg) | Preferred step rate versus + 7.5% | Kinematics: Time from IC contact to impact peak Foot angle at IC Max dorsiflexion during stance Max knee flexion during stance Max hip flexion during stance Vertical excursion of Centre of gravity Vertical velocity of centre of gravity at IC Kinetics: Vertical instantaneous load rate Vertical average load rate Lower extremity stiffness Impact peak (BW) Gait: Step rate Step length Note: Data collected at baseline and 12-weeks |
Wellenkotter et al. [39] | Cross-sectional Setting: laboratory, treadmill Step rate cue: audible and visual metronome Speed: self-selected (preferred) Footwear: standardised (New Balance 625) | 38 recreational runners (age, 23.0 ± 3.5 years; mass, 30.6 ± 4.7 kg; female, 19; male, 19) | Preferred step rate versus − 5%, + 5% | Kinetics: Total foot plantar loading Heel plantar loading Medial metatarsal plantar loading Central metatarsal plantar loading Lateral metatarsal plantar loading Peak force Force time integral Peak pressure Pressure time integral Gait: Contact time |
Willy et al. [40] | Randomised control trial Setting: laboratory, instrumented treadmill (baseline testing) Overground or treadmill (retraining programme) Step rate cue: real-time visual feedback (wristwatch) on runs 1–3, 5 and 7 (no feedback on runs 4, 6 and 8) Speed: self-selected Footwear: not described | 30 recreational runners 16 experimental (age, 251.9 ± 16.3 months; BMI, 23.0 ± 2.6 kg/m2; female 9, male 7); 14 controls (age, 248.8 ± 15 months; BMI, 23.4 ± 3.3 kg/m2; female 9, male 7) | Preferred step rate versus + 7.5% | Kinematics: Peak hip Adduction Kinetics: Vertical ground reaction force Instantaneous vertical load rate Average vertical load rate Eccentric knee work per stance Eccentric knee work per km Knee joint power Gait: Steps per minute Note: Data collected at baseline, post retraining period (after 8 runs) and 1-month |
Yong et al. [41] | Cross-sectional Setting: laboratory, overground 16.5 m Step rate cue: audible metronome Speed: self-selected Footwear: standardised (Saucony Ride 7) Additional: participants completed a practice of intervention on a treadmill prior to overground testing | 17 recreational runners (rearfoot strike pattern) (age, 32.1 ± 9.8 years; mass, 64.9 ± 12.5 kg; female, 11; male, 6) | Preferred step rate versus + 10% | Kinematics: Peak hip adduction angle Kinetics: Loading Rate Peak tibial acceleration Peak absolute free moment |
Zimmerman et al. [57] | Cross-sectional Setting: laboratory, instrumented treadmill Step rate cue: audible metronome Speed: predetermined (10 km/h) Footwear: participant’s own running shoes | 12 recreational runners Clinical diagnosis of exercise related leg pain | Step rate = 180 | Kinetics: Heel max GRF Midfoot max GRF Forefoot max GRF Heel max pressure midfoot max pressure forefoot max pressure Gait: Stride length Step rate |