Table 1 An overview of articles that analysed or described surf paddling kinematics
Study | Study type | Focus | N | Findings |
|---|---|---|---|---|
Surf kinematics | ||||
Nessler et al. 2015 [20] | Cohort study | Wetsuit vs non-wetsuit effect on muscle activation in paddling; EMG/8 camera Vicon analysis | 12 | -Mid deltoid, infraspinatus and upper trapezius peaks at recovery phase -Peak triceps brachii, erector spinae and LD during propulsion phase -Mid trapezius activity peak at the end of propulsion. |
Nessler et al. 2019 [21] | Cohort study | LD, upper + mid trapezius, post + mid deltoid surface EMG changes at different water velocities | 12 | -Mid deltoid, post deltoid and trapezius most active at the start of paddle motion -LD is most active in mid-stroke. -LD: propulsion -Deltoid: arm placement and return -Trapezius: scapular rotation |
Carter et al. 2015 [19] | Cohort and literature study | Shoulder elevation in relation to paddle activitiesa | 54 | Negative correlation between hours of board paddling and shoulder elevation scores. Paddle movement (no original data): -Starts in a forward flexed position with scapula protraction, glenohumeral abduction and flexion to catch the water. -Glenohumeral IR and extension follows while the thorax extends. Consistent cycling through these positions predisposes to impingement. -IR is a dominant movement, propelling the surfer, mainly by pectoralis major, LD and subscapularis. -Decreased ER may result as result of subsequent tightness, limiting scapular posterior tilt. |
Posture and ROM | ||||
Furness et al. 2014 [10] | Retrospective cohort study | Retrospective analysis of chronic injuries in surfers | 1348 | -Prolonged paddling is leading cause of chronic shoulder injuries. -Shortening of the muscle units of the shoulder muscles may result in muscular imbalance. |
McBride and Fisher 2012 [15] | Cross-sectional study | Identification of shoulder complaints in professional surfers | 15 | Clinical findings in 30 shoulders: -4/30 tendonitis -3/30 impingement. -8/30 had winging of the scapula during shoulder abduction. -2/30 had active signs of external impingement -3/30 had grade I anterior instability |
Lassalle et al. 2012 [16] | Cohort study | Physical examination of surfers with and without shoulder complaints | 25 | 76% of surfers had shoulder pain In the painful group: -Impingement in 53–63% -ER decreased compared to the non-painful group |
Shoulder strength in surfing | ||||
Furness et al. 2018 [22] | Cohort study | Internal to external strength ratio examined in professional surfers and reliability of testing. | 21 | More strength in IR muscles compared to ER muscles Comparable to other sports with repetitive overhead arm movements |
Madeira et al. 2019 [23] | Cohort study | Compares IR in surfers to reference population | 5 | In surfers: higher values for IR and smaller percentage for ER/IR ratio compared to reference population |