Best Time of Day for Strength and Endurance Training to Improve Health and Performance? A Systematic Review with Meta-analysis

Bruggisser, Fabienne; Knaier, Raphael; Roth, Ralf; Wang, Wei; Qian, Jingyi; Scheer, Frank A. J. L.

doi:10.1186/s40798-023-00577-5

Sports Medicine - Open

Table 2 Summary of the main outcomes of individual studies

From: Best Time of Day for Strength and Endurance Training to Improve Health and Performance? A Systematic Review with Meta-analysis

Study	Time of assessment			Pre-intervention						Post-intervention						Post–pre
				Morning training			Evening training			Morning training			Evening training			Morning training			Evening training			(∆ evening training–∆ morning training)	(p)
				(mean ± SD)						(mean ± SD)						(mean difference)						(∆ evening training–∆ morning training)	(p)
Anthropometric outcome measures
Body fat content (%)
Alizadeh et al. [49]	AM			35.7 ± 1.7			35.7 ± 2.1			34.6 ± 2.0			35.1 ± 2.3			− 1.1			− 0.6			0.5	0.26
Brooker et al. [54]	AM			41.7 ± 8.1			40.6 ± 8.9			40.5 ± 9.8			40.0 ± 8.3			− 1.2			− 0.6			0.6	n.r
Brooker et al. [55]	n.r			41.3 ± 7.4			42.7 ± 7.3			40.6 ± 8.1			41.6 ± 7.6			− 0.7			− 1.1			− 0.4	0.48
Krčmárová et al. [62]	AM			41.8 ± 4.9			42.2 ± 6.8			39.5 ± 5.7			40.4 ± 7.0			− 2.3			− 1.8			0.5	≥ 0.05
Saidi et al. [63]	AM			42.4 ± 7.8			42.1 ± 8.0			40.7 ± 7.9			39.6 ± 8.6			− 1.7			− 2.5			− 0.8	0.35
Quadriceps femoris volume (cm³)
Sedliak et al. [67]	n.r			2180 ± 340			2118 ± 217			2237 ± 342			2192 ± 220			57			74			17	0.19
Quadriceps femoris cross-sectional area (mm²)
Sedliak et al. [68]	AM/PM			7721 ± 795			8689 ± 1519			8385 ± 828			9674 ± 1495			664			985			321	≥ 0.05
Performance-related outcome measures
VO₂max (mL/kg/min)
Brito et al. [52]	AM			21.4 ± 3.2			21.4 ± 3.4			23.1 ± 3.4			23.0 ± 4.6			1.7			1.6			− 0.1	≥ 0.05
	PM			22.2 ± 3.2			21.0 ± 4.1			24.5 ± 3.9			23.3 ± 3.8			2.3			2.3			0	≥ 0.05
Brooker et al. [54]	AM			30.7 ± 5.1			28.5 ± 7.0			35.9 ± 8.3			33.1 ± 8.7			5.2			4.6			− 0.6	n.r
Brooker et al. [55]	n.r			29.1 ± 6.3			28.0 ± 7.5			33.6 ± 8.2			33.2 ± 8.6			4.5			5.2			0.7	0.82
12.5 m swim performance (s)
Ferchichi et al. [60]	AM			9.66 ± 0.49			9.87 ± 0.75			7.37 ± 0.30			8.75 ± 0.21			− 2.29			− 1.12			1.17	< 0.01
	PM			7.81 ± 0.75			8.26 ± 0.87			7.43 ± 0.54			7.11 ± 0.14			− 0.38			− 1.15			− 0.77	< 0.01
30-s Wingate mean power output (W/kg)
Boussetta et al. [51]	AM		7.92 ± 0.17			8.51 ± 0.13			9.12 ± 0.24			8.39 ± 0.15			1.20			− 0.12			− 1.32		≥ 0.05
	PM		8.53 ± 0.13			9.14 ± 0.16			9.14 ± 0.20			9.11 ± 0.20			0.61			− 0.03			− 0.64		≥ 0.05
Chtourou et al. [57]	AM		7.93 ± 0.47			7.65 ± 0.58			8.87 ± 0.65			7.70 ± 0.58			0.94			0.05			− 0.89		< 0.001
	PM		8.21 ± 0.53			8.07 ± 0.49			8.76 ± 0.61			8.77 ± 0.55			0.55			0.70			0.15		< 0.001
Chtourou et al. [58]	AM		8.21 ± 0.95			8.31 ± 0.74			8.42 ± 0.81			8.50 ± 0.80			0.21			0.19			− 0.02		≥ 0.05
	PM		8.58 ± 0.76			8.76 ± 0.77			8.58 ± 0.83			9.00 ± 0.78			0.00			0.24			0.24		≥ 0.05
Souissi et al. [71]	AM		7.12 ± 0.64			7.01 ± 0.85			7.63 ± 0.68			7.22 ± 1.00			0.51			0.21			− 0.30		< 0.05
	PM		7.48 ± 0.59			7.48 ± 0.97			7.61 ± 0.51			7.98 ± 1.06			0.13			0.50			0.37		< 0.05
Electromyography activation (µV)
Gueldich et al. [61]	AM		970 ± 150			1040 ± 130			1600 ± 140			1630 ± 60			630			590			− 40		< 0.01
	PM		1340 ± 120			1270 ± 130			1670 ± 100			2120 ± 30			330			850			520		< 0.01
Sedliak et al. [66]	AM		324 ± 133			339 ± 153			379 ± 151			373 ± 157			55			34			− 21		≥ 0.05
	PM		321 ± 125			339 ± 159			369 ± 148			347 ± 177			48			8			− 40		≥ 0.05
Health-related outcome measures
FEV1 (L)
Silva et al. [69]	n.r	1.73 ± 0.29			1.74 ± 0.38			1.81 ± 0.24			1.80 ± 0.34			0.08			0.06			− 0.02			≥ 0.05
Resting systolic blood pressure (mmHg)
Brito et al. [52]	AM	133 ± 14			129 ± 10			128 ± 13			123 ± 5			− 5			− 6			− 1			< 0.05
	PM	134 ± 14			134 ± 11			134 ± 14			125 ± 7			0			− 9			− 9			< 0.05
Brooker et al. [54]	AM	119 ± 10			135 ± 6			114 ± 7			121 ± 8			− 5			− 14			− 9			n.r
Brooker et al. [55]	n.r	120 ± 16			126 ± 16			118 ± 15			120 ± 10			− 2			− 6			− 4			0.25
Resting diastolic blood pressure (mmHg)
Brito et al. [52]	AM	90 ± 6			91 ± 5			90 ± 6			87 ± 5			0			− 4			− 4			≥ 0.05
	PM	91 ± 6			92 ± 7			91 ± 7			89 ± 7			0			− 3			− 3			≥ 0.05
Brooker et al. [54]	AM	84 ± 8			86 ± 9			80 ± 6			84 ± 10			− 4			− 2			2			n.r
Brooker et al. [55]	n.r	85 ± 11			85 ± 11			81 ± 11			82 ± 9			− 4			− 3			1			0.08
Fasting glucose (mmol/L)
Brooker et al. [54]	AM	5.6 ± 0.7			6.0 ± 1.0			5.5 ± 0.5			5.3 ± 0.4			− 0.1			− 0.7			− 0.6			n.r
Brooker et al. [55]	n.r	5.5 ± 0.5			5.7 ± 0.5			5.5 ± 0.6			5.6 ± 0.5			0			− 0.1			− 0.1			0.41
Krčmárová et al. [62]	AM	5.8 ± 0.4			5.6 ± 0.9			5.6 ± 0.6			5.1 ± 0.5			− 0.2			− 0.5			− 0.3			< 0.05
Savikj et al. [64]	AM	7.3 ± 1.0			7.3 ± 1.0			7.7 ± 1.3			7.5 ± 1.0			0.4			0.2			− 0.2			≥ 0.05
Teo et al. [72]	AM	7.7 ± 1.7			8.3 ± 3.7			6.8 ± 1.5			7.1 ± 2.4			− 0.9			− 1.2			− 0.3			0.42
Hb1Ac (%)
Savikj et al. [64]	AM	6.6 ± 1.3			6.6 ± 1.3			6.3 ± 0.7			6.4 ± 0.7			− 0.3			− 0.2			0.1			≥ 0.05
Teo et al. [72]	AM	6.9 ± 1.2			6.8 ± 1.7			6.6 ± 1.1			6.5 ± 1.5			− 0.3			− 0.3			0			0.79
Insulin (pmol/L)
Savikj et al. [64]	AM	56.9 ± 30.1			56.9 ± 30.1			71.4 ± 22.9			70.4 ± 38.5			14.5			13.5			− 1			≥ 0.05
Teo et al. [72]	AM	88.3 ± 33.9			81.0 ± 29.7			64.4 ± 23.4			58.6 ± 22.1			− 23.9			− 22.4			1.5			0.85
Low-density lipoprotein (mmol/L)
Brooker et al. [54]	AM	3.1 ± 0.7			2.6 ± 0.6			2.7 ± 0.6			2.4 ± 04			− 0.4			− 0.2			0.2			n.r
Brooker et al. [55]	n.r	2.9 ± 0.8			2.7 ± 0.7			2.6 ± 0.7			2.8 ± 0.9			− 0.3			0.1			0.4			0.51
Krčmárová et al. [62]	AM	2.6 ± 0.8			3.4 ± 1.3			3.0 ± 0.9			3.6 ± 1.4			0.4			0.2			− 0.2			≥ 0.05
Savikj et al. [64]	AM	2.4 ± 1.3			2.4 ± 1.3			2.4 ± 1.3			2.3 ± 1.3			0.0			− 0.1			− 0.1			≥ 0.05
High-density lipoprotein (mmol/L)
Brooker et al. [54]	AM	1.7 ± 0.4			1.0 ± 0.1			1.5 ± 0.4			0.9 ± 0.1			− 0.2			− 0.1			0.1			n.r
Brooker et al. [55]	n.r	1.4 ± 0.5			1.3 ± 0.4			1.4 ± 0.4			1.3 ± 0.4			0			0			0			0.87
Krčmárová et al. [62]	AM	1.5 ± 0.5			1.5 ± 0.4			1.5 ± 0.4			1.7 ± 0.4			0.0			0.2			0.2			≥ 0.05
Savikj et al. [64]	AM	1.2 ± 0.3			1.2 ± 0.3			1.3 ± 0.3			1.2 ± 0.3			0.1			0.0			− 0.1			≥ 0.05
Triglycerides (mmol/L)
Brooker et al. [54]	AM	1.3 ± 0.8			1.4 ± 1.1			1.0 ± 0.4			1.2 ± 0.5			− 0.3			− 0.2			0.1 n.r
Brooker et al. [55]	n.r	1.3 ± 0.7			1.4 ± 0.6			1.3 ± 0.7			1.4 ± 0.8			0			0			0			0.91
Krčmárová et al. [62]	AM	1.4 ± 0.4			1.7 ± 1.0			1.6 ± 0.4			1.3 ± 0.7			0.2			− 0.4			− 0.6			< 0.01

Note that the specific outcomes examined in the meta-analysis are not presented in the table to prevent overlap as they are shown in Fig. 3 and Table S1
SD standard deviation, AM at morning, PM past morning, n.r. not reported, VO₂max maximal oxygen consumption, FEV1 forced expiratory volume in one second, HbA1c hemoglobin A1c. All blood samples were collected in a fasted state
For all outcomes with a p ≥ 0.05, no specific p value was reported in the respective study

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