Table 4 Summary and characteristics of experimental studies reporting an association of sedentary behaviour with cognitive function

Duviver et al. (2017) [58]

Netherlands Experimental

Study number in pinwheel = 41

n = 24, Mage = 64 (7)

%F = 46

Population: non-clinical

Randomized cross-over

2 Conditions: 4 days each

Condition 1: restrict walking and standing to ≤ 1 h/day each, spending the remainder of the waking day sitting

Condition 2: substitute at least 7 h/day of sitting with ≥ 4 h of self-perceived light walking and ≥ 3 h of standing; and to interrupt sitting preferably every 30 min with standing/walking bouts

Device (activPAL)

Processing Speed (TMT)

Working Memory (TMT)

Cognitive Flexibility (TMT)

Executive Function (Attention Network test)

Episodic Memory (immediate and delayed verbal memory)

Sex

No significant differences in cognitive outcomes between activity regiments

Edwardson et al. (2018) [59]

England Experimental

Study number in pinwheel = 42

Intervention

n = 77, Mage = 41.7 (11.0), %F = 73, SB time = 581

Control

n = 69, Mage = 40.8 (11.3), %F = 87, SB time = 584.4

Population: non-clinical

Cluster two arm randomized controlled trial

3–12 months

Intervention group: multicomponent intervention (height adjustable desks, seminars, targets, feedback, posters, action planning, goal setting, self-monitoring and promt tool and coaching sessions)

Control group: continued with usual practice

Device (activPAL)

Processing Speed (DDST)

Executive function (Stroop)

Episodic Memory (HVLT)

Baseline value, office size, and Average activPAL wear time, and average activPAL waking wear hours

A significant difference between groups (in favour of the intervention group) was found in occupational sitting time at 3, 6 and 12 months (− 83.28 min/workday, 95% confidence interval − 116.57 to − 49.98, P = 0.001)

Differences between groups (in favour of the intervention group compared with control) were observed for daily sitting time at six months (− 59.32 min/day, − 88.40 to − 30.25, p < 0.001) and 12 months (− 82.39 min/day, − 114.54 to − 50.26, P = 0.001)

There were differences between groups in reaction times at 3, 6, and 12 months for the congruent level of the Stroop Colour-Word Test and in proportion of correct hits at the incongruent level, all in favour of the intervention group compared with control

Ezeugwu et al. (2018) [60]

Canada

Experimental

Study number in pinwheel = 9

n = 34, Mage = 64.6 (12.5)

% F = 44.0

Population: clinical

Single group intervention study

1-week baseline

8-week intervention

8-week follow-up

Aimed to interrupt and replace sedentary time with upright activities at home and in the community

Device (activPAL)

Global Cognitive Function (MoCA)

Age and sex

Sedentary time decreased by 54.213.7 min per day (p < .01) at postintervention and 26.814.0 min per day (PZ.07) at follow-up, relative to baseline

Significant improvement in cognition over-time

Falck et al. (2018) [70]

Canada

Experimental

Study number in pinwheel = 11

I-INT

n = 30, Mage = 61.7 (9.4)

% F = 73.3, SB time 682

D-INT

n = 31, Mage = 62.6 (8.5)

% F = 90.3, SB time = 703

Population: non-clinical

Secondary analysis of a 6-month randomized controlled trial

2 groups

- Immediate intervention

- Delayed intervention (control group; received same intervention as I-INT after a 2-month wait)

Intervention: 1.5 h group education session & individual counselling to increase MVPA and decrease SB

Device (SenseWear Mini & FitBit flex)

Episodic Memory (Picture sequence)

Working Memory (List sorting)

Baseline cognitive scores

There were no statistically significant relationships between changes in SB and changes in either picture sequence memory (B = −0.01; 95% CI [− 0.09, 0.07]) or list-sorting memory (B = 0.00; 95% CI [− 0.09, 0.10])

Maasakkers et al. (2020) [73]

Netherlands Experimental

Study number in pinwheel = 44

n = 22, Mage = 78 (5.3)

%F = 41, SB time = 618

Population = non-clinical

Randomized cross-over

Condition 1: 3 h of sitting

Condition 2: 3 h of sitting interrupted every 30 min with 2 min of walking

Device (activPAL) & lab-supervised

Executive Function (Attentional performance battery)

Working Memory (Attentional performance battery)

Corrected for the order of the first measurement condition

No short-term differences were observed in cognitive performance across time or between conditions

Marusic et al. (2020) [71]

USA

Experimental

Study number in pinwheel = 46

n = 12, Mage = 71.1 (3.8)

%F = 25

Population: clinical

Randomized cross-over

Condition 1 (3-h): “baseline”- participants remained seated throughout the period except for the rare break

Condition 2 (4-h): “static standing”-participants were asked to stand behind the table

Condition 3 (4-h): “dynamic standing”- participants stood behind the same table but received periodic cues to induce weight-shifting steps

Device (Actigraph)

Working Memory (TMT)

Cognitive Flexibility (TMT)

Executive Function (Stroop)

Not stated

Significant beneficial effects of standing conditions for Stroop and some TMT sub-tests

Wanders et al. (2020) [72]

Netherlands Experimental

Study number in pinwheel = 51

n = 24, Mage = 60 (8.0), %F = 79, SB time = 612

Population: Healthy

Condition 1: 4-h uninterrupted sitting (SIT)

Condition 2: Sitting interrupted by PA breaks (5-min cycling every 30 min) (ACT)

Randomized cross-over

4-h of uninterrupted sitting vs. 4-h of interrupted sitting (5-min cycling every 30 min)

Device (activPAL)

Motor Skills and Construction (Reaction time from the Computer-based Test of Attentional Performance)

Working Memory (Computer-based Test of Attentional Performance)

Executive Function (Flexibility Score from the Computer-based Test of Attentional Performance)

Not stated

PA breaks had no significant effects on the cognitive outcomes

Wheeler et al. (2019) [62]

Australia Experimental

Study number in pinwheel = 36

n = 67, Mage = 67 (7.0)

% F = 52.2, SB time = n/a

Population: non-clinical

Randomized cross-over

Condition 1: uninterrupted sitting (8 h, control)

Condition 2: sitting (1 h), moderate-intensity walking (30 min), uninterrupted sitting (6.5 h)

Condition 3: sitting (1 h), moderate-intensity walking (30 min), sitting interrupted every 30 min with 3 min of light-intensity walking (6.5 h)

Lab-supervised

Executive Function (Groton Maze Learning Test)

Processing Speed (Detection Test, Identification Test)

Episodic Memory (One Card Learning Test)

Working Memory (n-back)

Age, sex, waist circumference, treatment order, testing site, baseline values, years of education

A morning bout of moderate-intensity exercise improved executive function over an 8-h period in older adults, relative to prolonged sitting

When exercise was combined with light-intensity breaks in sitting, working memory but not executive function was improved, relative to prolonged sitting