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Table 7 Pooled and single study results for kinetic, kinematic and muscle activation variables at the foot, ankle and lower leg

From: What is the Effect of Changing Running Step Rate on Injury, Performance and Biomechanics? A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

Variable

Preferred SR versus Increased SR

Preferred SR versus Reduced SR

Kinetics

Peak tibial acceleration

 + 10% [31, 41, 44, 50]

0.06 ( − 0.29, 0.42)

 − 10% [31, 44]

 − 0.42 ( − 0.93, 0.08)

  

 + 20% [31]

0.08 ( − 0.72, 0.88)

 − 20% [31]

 − 1.13 ( − 2.01,  − 0.26)

 

Tibial signal power magnitude (3–8 Hz)

 + 10% [31]

0.34 ( − 0.46, 1.15)

 − 10% [31]

 − 0.41 ( − 1.22, 0.40)

  

 + 20% [31]

0.54 ( − 0.28, 1.36)

 − 20% [31]

 − 0.92 ( − 1.76,  − 0.07)

 

Tibial signal power magnitude (9–20 Hz)

 + 10% [31]

0.05 ( − 0.75, 0.85)

 − 10% [31]

 − 0.18 ( − 0.99, 0.62)

  

 + 20% [31]

0.01 ( − 0.79, 0.81)

 − 20% [31]

 − 0.57 ( − 1.39, 0.25)

 

Leg compression

 + 30% [54]

3.83 (2.24, 5.42)

 − 30% [54]

 − 2.42 ( − 3.64,  − 1.21)

 

Leg stiffness

 + 7.5% (at 12 − weeks) [38]

 − 0.61 ( − 1.43, 0.22)

  
  

 + 30% [54]

 − 1.37 ( − 2.37,  − 0.38)

 − 30% [54]

0.42 ( − 0.46, 1.31)

 

Negative ankle work

 + 5% [49]

0.05 ( − 0.36, 0.46)

 − 5% [49]

0.07 ( − 0.34, 0.49)

  

 + 10% [44, 49]

0.01 ( − 0.33, 0.36)

 − 10% [44, 49]

0.38 (0.03, 0.73)

 

Positive ankle work

 + 5% [49]

0.33 ( − 0.09, 0.75)

 − 5% [49]

 − 0.46 ( − 0.88,  − 0.04)

  

 + 10% [49]

0.74 (0.31, 1.16)

 − 10% [49]

 − 0.86 ( − 1.29,  − 0.42)

 

Average positive ankle power (stance)

 + 8% [26]

0.18 [ − 0.52, 0.87]

 − 8% [26]

 − 0.39 [ − 1.09, 0.31]

  

 + 15% [26]

0.54 [ − 0.17, 1.24]

 − 15% [26]

 − 1.07 [ − 1.82,  − 0.33]

 

Average positive ankle power (swing)

 + 8% [26]

0.00 [ − 0.69, 0.69]

 − 8% [26]

0.97 [0.24, 1.71]

  

 + 15% [26]

0.00 [ − 0.69, 0.69]

 − 15% [26]

0.97 [0.24, 1.71]

 

Plantarflexion moment

 + 10% [33]

 − 0.06 ( − 0.70, 0.58)

  
 

Vertical foot velocity at initial contact

 + 5% [45]

0.12 ( − 0.75, 1.00)

 − 5% [45]

 − 0.37 ( − 1.26, 0.52)

  

 + 10% [45]

0.14 ( − 0.74, 1.01)

 − 10% [45]

 − 0.54 ( − 1.43, 0.36)

 

Horizontal foot velocity at initial contact

 + 5% [45]

 − 0.15 ( − 1.03, 0.73)

 − 5% [45]

0.14 ( − 0.74, 1.02)

  

 + 10% [45]

 − 0.11 ( − 0.98, 0.77)

 − 10% [45]

0.17 ( − 0.70, 1.05)

 

Average MGAS muscle activation

 + 8% [26]

0.11 [ − 0.58, 0.81]

 − 8% [26]

0.31 [ − 0.38, 1.01]

  

 + 15% [26]

0.00 [ − 0.69, 0.69]

 − 15% [26]

0.13 [ − 0.56, 0.83]

 

Average LGAS muscle activation

 + 8% [26]

0.00 [ − 0.69, 0.69]

 − 8% [26]

 − 0.10 [ − 0.79, 0.59]

  

 + 15% [26]

0.05 [ − 0.65, 0.74]

 − 15% [26]

 − 0.28 [ − 0.98, 0.41]

 

Average SOL muscle activation

 + 8% [26]

0.30 [ − 0.40, 1.00]

 − 8% [26]

0.26 [ − 0.44, 0.95]

  

 + 15% [26]

0.49 [ − 0.22, 1.19]

 − 15% [26]

 − 0.05 [ − 0.75, 0.64]

 

Average TA muscle activation

 + 8% [26]

0.05 [ − 0.64, 0.74]

 − 8% [26]

 − 2.78 [ − 3.78,  − 1.77]

  

 + 15% [26]

 − 0.05 [ − 0.74, 0.64]

 − 15% [26]

 − 0.05 [ − 0.74, 0.64]

 

TA muscle activity – stance 0–15%

 + 5% [32]

 − 0.33 ( − 0.74, 0.09)

  
  

 + 10% [32]

0.00 ( − 0.41, 0.41)

  
 

TA muscle activity—stance 30–50%

 + 5% [32]

 − 0.20 ( − 0.61, 0.22)

  
  

 + 10% [32]

 − 0.59 ( − 1.02,  − 0.17)

  
 

TA muscle activity—swing 80–90%

 + 5% [32]

0.33 ( − 0.09, 0.75)

  
  

 + 10% [32]

0.33 ( − 0.09, 0.75)

  
 

TA muscle activity—swing 90–100%

 + 5% [32]

 − 0.28 ( − 0.70, 0.13)

  
  

 + 10% [32]

 − 0.72 ( − 1.15,  − 0.29)

  
 

MGAS muscle activity—stance 0–15%

 + 5% [32]

0.00 ( − 0.41, 0.41)

  
  

 + 10% [32]

0.00 ( − 0.41, 0.41)

  
 

MGAS muscle activity—swing 80–90%

 + 5% [32]

 − 0.22 ( − 0.63, 0.20)

  
  

 + 10% [32]

 − 0.45 ( − 0.86,  − 0.03)

  
 

MGAS muscle activity—swing 90–100%

 + 5% [32]

0.00 ( − 0.41, 0.41)

  
  

 + 10% [32]

 − 0.40 ( − 0.82, 0.02)

  
 

GASTROC peak force

 + 10% [30]

0.77 (0.11, 1.43)

 − 10% [30]

 − 0.61 ( − 1.26, 0.04)

 

GASTROC impulse

 + 10% [30]

0.33 ( − 0.31, 0.97)

 − 10% [30]

 − 0.77 ( − 1.43,  − 0.11)

 

GASTROC impulse/km

 + 10% [30]

0.60 ( − 0.05, 1.25)

 − 10% [30]

 − 0.80 ( − 1.46,  − 0.13)

 

Peak SOL muscle force

 + 10% [36]

0.37 ( − 0.14, 0.88)

 − 10% [36]

 − 0.51 ( − 1.03, 0.00)

 

Peak MGAS muscle force—late stance / early swing (0–40%)

 + 10% [36]

0.14 ( − 0.37, 0.64)

 − 10% [36]

0.29 ( − 0.22, 0.80)

 

Peak MGAS muscle force—late swing (80–99%)

 + 10% [36]

 − 0.28 ( − 0.79, 0.23)

 − 10% [36]

0.26 ( − 0.25, 0.77)

 

Peak TA muscle force

 + 10% [36]

0.11 ( − 0.40, 0.62)

 − 10% [36]

0.33 ( − 0.18, 0.84)

 

Rearfoot peak pressure

 + 5% [35, 39]

0.18 ( − 0.15, 0.51)

 − 5% [35, 39]

 − 0.14 ( − 0.48, 0.19)

  

 + 10% [35]

0.31 ( − 0.19, 0.80)

 − 10% [35]

 − 0.35 ( − 0.84, 0.14)

  

180spm [57]

0.30 ( − 0.50, 1.11)

  
 

Midfoot peak pressure

 + 5% [35]

0.08 ( − 0.41, 0.57)

 − 5% [35]

0.03 ( − 0.46, 0.52)

  

 + 10% [35]

0.25 ( − 0.24, 0.74)

 − 10% [35]

0.05 ( − 0.44, 0.54)

  

180spm [57]

0.14 ( − 0.66, 0.94)

  
 

Medial forefoot peak pressure

 + 5% [35]

 − 0.06 ( − 0.55, 0.43)

 − 5% [35]

0.03 ( − 0.46, 0.52)

  

 + 10% [35]

 − 0.05 ( − 0.54, 0.44)

 − 10% [35]

 − 0.02 ( − 0.51, 0.47)

 

Lateral forefoot peak pressure

 + 5% [35]

0.06 ( − 0.43, 0.55)

 − 5% [35]

0.03 ( − 0.46, 0.52)

  

 + 10% [35]

0.07 ( − 0.42, 0.56)

 − 10% [35]

0.09 ( − 0.40, 0.58)

 

Hallux peak pressure

 + 5% [35]

0.04 ( − 0.45, 0.53)

 − 5% [35]

 − 0.09 ( − 0.58, 0.40)

  

 + 10% [35]

0.06 ( − 0.43, 0.55)

 − 10% [35]

 − 0.08 ( − 0.57, 0.41)

 

Rearfoot max force

 + 5% [35, 39]

0.17 ( − 0.16, 0.50)

 − 5% [35, 39]

 − 0.14 ( − 0.47, 0.19)

  

 + 10% [35]

0.30 ( − 0.19, 0.79)

 − 10% [35]

 − 0.27 ( − 0.76, 0.22)

  

180spm [57]

1.29 (0.39, 2.18)

  
 

Midfoot max force

 + 5% [35]

0.10 ( − 0.39, 0.59)

 − 5% [35]

0.05 ( − 0.44, 0.54)

  

 + 10% [35]

0.21 ( − 0.28, 0.70)

 − 10% [35]

0.04 ( − 0.45, 0.53)

  

180spm [57]

0.54 ( − 0.27, 1.36)

  
 

Medial forefoot max force

 + 5% [35]

0.00 ( − 0.49, 0.49)

 − 5% [35]

 − 0.01 ( − 0.50, 0.48)

  

 + 10% [35]

0.00 ( − 0.49, 0.49)

 − 10% [35]

 − 0.01 ( − 0.50, 0.48)

 

Lateral forefoot max force

 + 5% [35]

0.09 ( − 0.40, 0.58)

 − 5% [35]

0.04 ( − 0.45, 0.53)

  

 + 10% [35]

0.13 ( − 0.37, 0.62)

 − 10% [35]

0.10 ( − 0.39, 0.59)

 

Hallux max force

 + 5% [35]

0.05 ( − 0.44, 0.54)

 − 5% [35]

 − 0.11 ( − 0.60, 0.38)

  

 + 10% [35]

0.11 ( − 0.38, 0.60)

 − 10% [35]

 − 0.13 ( − 0.62, 0.36)

 

Rearfoot contact area

 + 5% [35]

0.06 ( − 0.43, 0.55)

 − 5% [35]

0.00 ( − 0.49, 0.49)

  

 + 10% [35]

0.12 ( − 0.37, 0.61)

 − 10% [35]

 − 0.04 ( − 0.53, 0.45)

 

Midfoot contact area

 + 5% [35]

0.03 ( − 0.46, 0.52)

 − 5% [35]

0.06 ( − 0.43, 0.55)

  

 + 10% [35]

0.05 ( − 0.44, 0.54)

 − 10% [35]

0.04 ( − 0.45, 0.53)

 

Medial forefoot contact area

 + 5% [35]

0.00 ( − 0.49, 0.49)

 − 5% [35]

0.04 ( − 0.45, 0.53)

  

 + 10% [35]

0.00 ( − 0.49, 0.49)

 − 10% [35]

0.04 ( − 0.45, 0.53)

 

Lateral forefoot contact area

 + 5% [35]

0.02 ( − 0.47, 0.51)

 − 5% [35]

0.04 ( − 0.45, 0.53)

  

 + 10% [35]

0.02 ( − 0.47, 0.51)

 − 10% [35]

0.04 ( − 0.45, 0.53)

 

Hallux contact area

 + 5% [35]

0.00 ( − 0.49, 0.49)

 − 5% [35]

0.00 ( − 0.49, 0.49)

  

 + 10% [35]

0.00 ( − 0.49, 0.49)

 − 10% [35]

0.05 ( − 0.44, 0.54)

 

Rearfoot contact time

 + 5% [35, 39]

 − 0.07 ( − 0.41, 0.26)

 − 5% [35, 39]

 − 0.23 ( − 0.56, 0.10)

  

 + 10% [35]

 − 0.16 ( − 0.65, 0.33)

 − 10% [35]

 − 0.35 ( − 0.85, 0.14)

 

Midfoot contact time

 + 5% [35]

 − 0.28 ( − 0.77, 0.22)

 − 5% [35]

 − 0.27 ( − 0.76, 0.23)

  

 + 10% [35]

 − 0.15 ( − 0.64, 0.34)

 − 10% [35]

 − 0.26 ( − 0.75, 0.23)

 

Medial forefoot contact time

 + 5% [35]

 − 0.30 ( − 0.79, 0.19)

 − 5% [35]

 − 0.08 ( − 0.57, 0.41)

  

 + 10% [35]

 − 0.26 ( − 0.75, 0.23)

 − 10% [35]

 − 0.13 ( − 0.63, 0.36)

 

Lateral forefoot contact time

 + 5% [35]

 − 0.27 ( − 0.76, 0.22)

 − 5% [35]

 − 0.10 ( − 0.59, 0.39)

  

 + 10% [35]

 − 0.24 ( − 0.73, 0.26)

 − 10% [35]

 − 0.15 ( − 0.64, 0.34)

 

Hallux contact time

 + 5% [35]

 − 0.19 ( − 0.68, 0.30)

 − 5% [35]

 − 0.04 ( − 0.53, 0.45)

  

 + 10% [35]

 − 0.13 ( − 0.62, 0.36)

 − 10% [35]

 − 0.08 ( − 0.57, 0.41)

 

Total foot contact time

 + 5% [39]

0.30 ( − 0.15, 0.75)

 − 5% [39]

 − 0.20 ( − 0.65, 0.25)

 

Medial forefoot contact time

 + 5% [39]

0.21 ( − 0.24, 0.66)

 − 5% [39]

 − 0.21 ( − 0.66, 0.24)

 

Central forefoot contact time

 + 5% [39]

0.19 ( − 0.26, 0.64)

 − 5% [39]

 − 0.25 ( − 0.70, 0.20)

 

Lateral forefoot contact time

 + 5% [39]

0.26 ( − 0.19, 0.72)

 − 5% [39]

 − 0.15 ( − 0.60, 0.30)

 

Heel force time integral

 + 5% [39]

0.26 ( − 0.19, 0.71)

 − 5% [39]

 − 0.04 ( − 0.49, 0.41)

 

Medial forefoot force time integral

 + 5% [39]

0.17 ( − 0.28, 0.62)

 − 5% [39]

 − 0.16 ( − 0.61, 0.29)

 

Central forefoot force time integral

 + 5% [39]

0.21 ( − 0.24, 0.66)

 − 5% [39]

 − 0.21 ( − 0.66, 0.24)

 

Lateral forefoot force time integral

 + 5% [39]

0.10 ( − 0.35, 0.55)

 − 5% [39]

 − 0.10 ( − 0.55, 0.35)

 

Total foot peak force

 + 5% [39]

0.12 ( − 0.33, 0.57)

 − 5% [39]

0.05 ( − 0.40, 0.50)

 

Medial forefoot peak force

 + 5% [39]

0.06 ( − 0.39, 0.51)

 − 5% [39]

 − 0.11 ( − 0.56, 0.34)

 

Central forefoot peak force

 + 5% [39]

0.05 ( − 0.40, 0.50)

 − 5% [39]

 − 0.05 ( − 0.50, 0.40)

 

Lateral forefoot peak force

 + 5% [39]

0.00 ( − 0.45, 0.45)

 − 5% [39]

 − 0.07 ( − 0.52, 0.38)

 

Total foot peak pressure

 + 5% [39]

0.08 ( − 0.37, 0.53)

 − 5% [39]

 − 0.20 ( − 0.65, 0.25)

 

Medial forefoot peak pressure

 + 5% [39]

0.18 ( − 0.27, 0.63)

 − 5% [39]

0.08 ( − 0.37, 0.53)

 

Central forefoot peak pressure

 + 5% [39]

0.08 ( − 0.37, 0.53)

 − 5% [39]

 − 0.06 ( − 0.51, 0.39)

 

Lateral forefoot peak pressure

 + 5% [39]

0.29 ( − 0.16, 0.74)

 − 5% [39]

0.20 ( − 0.25, 0.66)

 

Heel pressure time integral

 + 5% [39]

0.28 ( − 0.17, 0.73)

 − 5% [39]

 − 0.06 ( − 0.51, 0.39)

 

Medial forefoot pressure time integral

 + 5% [39]

0.28 ( − 0.17, 0.73)

 − 5% [39]

0.02 ( − 0.43, 0.47)

 

Central forefoot pressure time integral

 + 5% [39]

0.18 ( − 0.27, 0.63)

 − 5% [39]

 − 0.15 ( − 0.60, 0.30)

 

Lateral forefoot pressure time integral

 + 5% [39]

0.33 ( − 0.12, 0.78)

 − 5% [39]

0.03 ( − 0.42, 0.48)

 

Forefoot max force

180spm [57]

0.78 ( − 0.05, 1.62)

  
 

Forefoot max pressure

180spm [57]

0.47 ( − 0.34, 1.28)

  

Kinematics

Average ankle PF/DF at IC

 + 5% [45]

0.05 ( − 0.83, 0.92)

 − 5% [45]

0.13 ( − 0.75, 1.01)

  

 + 10% [34, 45]

0.23 ( − 0.20, 0.57)

 − 10% [45]

 − 0.26 ( − 1.14, 0.63)

 

Foot strike angle

 + 5% [22, 49]

0.39 (0.09, 0.69)

 − 5% [49]

 − 0.13 ( − 0.55, 0.28)

  

 + 7.5% (at 12 − weeks) [38]

0.99 (0.13, 1.84)

  
  

 + 10% [22, 33, 49]

0.62 (0.34, 0.90)

 − 10% [49]

 − 0.27 ( − 0.68, 0.15)

  

 + 15% [22]

1.19 (0.71, 1.67)

  
 

Average ankle PF/DF during stance

 + 10% [34]

0.06 ( − 0.43, 0.56)

  
 

Peak ankle PF/DF during stance

 + 10% [34]

0.85 (0.33, 1.37)

  
 

Max DF during stance

 + 7.5% (at 12 − weeks) [38]

 − 0.09 ( − 0.89, 0.71)

  
 

Peak rearfoot eversion angle

 + 10% [47]

0.04 ( − 0.84, 0.92)

  
 

Peak rearfoot eversion % of GC

 + 10% [47]

0.08 ( − 0.80, 0.96)

  
 

Peak shank IR angle

 + 10% [47]

0.02 ( − 0.86, 0.89)

  
 

Peak shank IR % of GC

 + 10% [47]

 − 0.87 ( − 1.8, 0.05)

  
  1. SMD ± 95% CI are provided for each percentage increase or decrease in running step rate. SMD ± 95% CI presented in bold are statistically significant
  2. Abbreviations: DF dorsiflexion, GASTROC gastrocnemius, GC gait cycle, IC initial contact, LGAS lateral gastrocnemius, MGAS medial gastrocnemius, PF plantarflexion, SOL soleus, TA tibialis anterior