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Table 5 Summary of study underwater kick performance variables data most frequently correlated with velocity

From: The Relationship Between Undulatory Underwater Kick Performance Determinants and Underwater Velocity in Competitive Swimmers: A Systematic Review

References

Participants

UUS Velocity (m s−1)

Kick Frequency (Hz)

Kick Amplitude (m)

Vertical Toe Velocity (m s−1)

Knee Angular Velocity (° s−1)

Knee Range of Motion (°)

Body position

Alves et al. [6]

6 junior national swimmers

Prone: 1.46 ± 0.15

Dorsal: 1.42 ± 0.21

Lateral: 1.27 ± 0.11

Prone: 2.35 ± 0.27

Dorsal: 2.30 ± 0.33

Lateral: 2.08 ± 0.36

Prone: 0.50 ± 0.06

Dorsal: 0.55 ± 0.08

Lateral: 0.59 ± 0.09

  

Prone Knee Flex: 119.34 ± 3.70

Dorsal Knee Flex: 120.72 ± 13.05

Lateral Knee Flex: 107.73 ± 8.68

Arellano et al. [33]1999

11 national swimmers (M)

Prone: 1.69

Dorsal: 1.67

2.22

2.25

   

Prone:

DK: 169.18

UK: 171.00

Dorsal:

DK: 118.27

UK: 114.27

Horizontal distance from starting block

de Jesus et al. [35]

4 international swimmers

BSFI

1st 4 kick cycles: 1.47 ± 0.11

Last 4 kick cycles: 1.28 ± 0.07

2.42 ± 0.15

2.33 ± 0.19

0.61 ± 0.07

0.55 ± 0.05

   

BSFE

1st 4 kick cycles: 1.44 ± 0.04

Last 4 kick cycles: 1.30 ± 0.04

2.41 ± 0.20

2.39 ± 0.24

0.60 ± 0.06

0.55 ± 0.07

Houel et al. [36]

12 national swimmers

At 5.5 m: 2.18 ± 0.21

At 7.5 m: 1.76 ± 0.15

At 7.5 m: 2.32 ± 0.21

At 7.5 m: 0.71 ± 0.60

   

Houel and Elipot [37]

10 national swimmers

At 6 m: 1.99 ± 0.13

At 6.5 m: 1.93 ± 0.14

At 7 m: 1.74 ± 0.25

At 7.5 m: 1.76 ± 0.17

At 7.5 m: 2.32 ± 0.22

At 7.5 m: 0.71 ± 0.60

   

Level of swimmer

Connaboy et al. [34]

17 national swimmers (8 M, 9F)

1.20 ± 0.13

2.13 ± 0.23

Hip: 0.13 ± 0.03

Knee: 0.27 ± 0.04

Ankle: 0.46 ± 0.06

5th MPJ: 0.61 ± 0.07

 

702.7 ± 82.9

89.6 ± 6.9

Higgs et al. [15]

7 national swimmers (7 M, 3F)

  

DK: 0.58 ± 0.09

UK: 0.58 ± 0.09

− 3.61 ± 0.63

4.10 ± 0.63

260.0 ± 28.9

− 190.1 ± 43.6

 

Hochstein and Blickhan [7]

2 national swimmers (F)

Subject 1: 1.22 ± 0.06

Subject 2: 1.18 ± 0.06

1.98 ± 0.10

2.13 ± 0.10

0.54 ± 0.04

0.52 ± 0.03

   

Hochstein and Blickhan [17]

4 national swimmers (F)

6 regional club swimmers (3 M, 3F)

1.23 ± 0.04

1.09 ± 0.13

 

Toe: 0.22 ± 0.01

Toe: 0.24 ± 0.06

   

Ikeda et al. [41]

9 swimmers (M)

1.75 ± 0.16

2.37 ± 0.23

   

109.0 ± 10.8 (min)

Shimojo et al. [16]

10 national swimmers (M)

1.60 ± 0.12

2.26 ± 0.16

    

Shimojo et al. [16]

1 national swimmer (M)

 

1.14 ± SD to 1.30 ± SD across 41 trials

0.70 ± 0.04 to 0.74 ± 0.02 across 41 trials

   

Shimojo et al. [48]

Experiment 1

17 national swimmers (9 M, 8F)

1.33 ± 0.19

1.65 ± 0.18

0.57 ± 0.06

   

Experiment 2

1 national swimmer (M)

Wang and Liu [39]

10 international swimmers

10 regional club swimmers

3.34 ± 0.51

2.10 ± 1.22

   

Significantly greater in international team than regional club level (no numerical data provided)

 

Willems et al. [24]

26 national swimmers (15 M, 11F)

1.64 ± 0.20

2.08 ± 0.40

    

Yamakawa et al. [40]

8 national swimmers (F)

1.35 ± 0.08

1.99 ± 0.15

0.48 ± 0.05

DK: − 1.91 ± 0.14

UK: 1.68 ± 0.20

  

Yamakawa et al. [49]

8 national swimmers (M)

1.19 ± 0.09

1.59 ± 0.23

0.31 ± 0.07

 

DK: 390.8 ± 59.8

UK: − 504.0 ± 67.9

73.3 ± 6.6

  1. UUS undulatory underwater kick, UK up kick, DK down kick, M male, F female, BSFE backstroke start with feet emerged, BSFI backstroke start with feet immerged