Table 3 Summary of study participants, demographic characteristics, trials performed, kinematic, kinetic and kinanthropometric analysis
References | Participants | Demographic characteristics (mean ± SD) | Trials performed | Kinematic analysis | Kinetic analysis | Kinanthropometric analysis |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Alves et al. [6] | 6 junior national swimmersa | 17.0 ± 0.4 yrs 177.0 ± 3.6 cm 69.3 ± 6.0 kg | 3 × 25 m max UUS from a block start in dorsal, prone and lateral positions | Two fixed underwater digital cameras (front and sagittal) with a frame rate of 50 Hz. Images from the 4th kick cycle were retained for 3D kinematic analysis |  | Active ankle and knee range of motion |
Arellano et al. [33] | 11 national swimmers (M) | 19.9 ± 2.2 yrs 184.7 ± 5.8 cm 75.7 ± 8.7 kg | 2 × 15 m max UUS with an underwater start in prone and dorsal positions | One underwater sagittal camera with a frame rate of 50 Hz |  | Active full body range of motion |
Atkison et al. [10] | 15 adult international and state swimmers (M) | 21.5 ± 3.2 yrs | 3 × 15 m max UUS from a push start in prone body position | One underwater sagittal camera with a frame rate of 30 Hz |  | Active full body range of motion |
Connaboy et al. [34] | 17 national swimmers (8 M, 9F) | Male swimmers: 17.6 ± 1.4 yrs 177.6 ± 5.3 cm 72.7 ± 7.9 kg Female swimmers: 16.4 ± 0.8 yrs 164.9 ± 4.1 cm 53.8 ± 3 kg | 3 × 15 m max UUS from a push start in prone body position | One underwater sagittal camera with a frame rate of 50 Hz |  | Active full body range of motion |
de Jesus et al. [35] | 4 international swimmers | 22.8 ± 1.7 yrs 178.0 ± 6 cm 76 ± 8.9 kg | 2 x (3 × 15 m) max UUS in dorsal body position | A cable velocimeter with a sampling rate of 50 Hz |  | Active lower body range of motion |
Elipot et al. [14] | 12 national swimmers (M) | 183 ± 5 cm 76.1 ± 5.2 kg | 3 × 15 m max UUS from a grab start in prone body position | Four underwater mini-DV camcorders with a frame rate of 25 Hz |  |  |
Higgs et al. [15] | 7 national swimmers (7 M, 3F) | 21.1 ± 2.6 183.0 ± 8 cm 79.5 ± 10.1 kg | 3 × 20 m max UUS from a push start in prone body position | One underwater sagittal camera with a frame rate of 100 Hz |  | Active lower body range of motion |
Hochstein and Blickhan [7] | 2 national swimmers (F) | Subject 1: 26 yrs 178.0 cm 73 kg Subject 2: 24 yrs 167 cm 56.5 kg | 15 m max UUS trials from a standing start in prone body position | Two underwater sagittal cameras (one on each side). One camera was used for motion capture and the other was used for flow capture |  |  |
Hochstein and Blickhan [17] | 4 national swimmers (F) 6 regional club swimmers (3 M, 3F) | 22.1 ± 4.3 yrs 171.4 ± 5.9 cm 65.4 ± 9.4 kg | 10 m max UUS trials from a standing start in the prone body position | One underwater sagittal camera with a frame rate of 125 Hz |  | Active full body range of motion |
Hochstein et al. [44] | 1 national swimmer (F) | NA | 20Â m max UUS trial from a standing start in the prone body position | One underwater sagittal camera with a frame rate of 250Â Hz | 2D Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) | Active full body range of motion 3D Body Scanner |
Houel et al. [36] | 12 national swimmersa | 21.41 ± 4.5 yrs 183.33 ± 4.9 cm 75.8 ± 5.1 kg | 10 m max UUS trials from a grab start in prone body position | Three underwater cameras (two in the sagittal plane, one recording a slanting view of the swimmer motion) with a frame rate of 50 Hz 3D kinematic analysis |  |  |
Houel et al. [37] | 10 national swimmersa | 21.41 ± 4.5 yrs 183.33 ± 4.9 cm 75.8 ± 5.1 kg | 10 m max UUS trials from a grab start in prone body position | Three underwater cameras (two in the sagittal plane, one recording a slanting view of the swimmer motion) with a frame rate of 25 Hz 3D kinematic analysis |  |  |
Ikeda et al. [41] | 9 swimmers (M) FINA 766 ± 91.4 | 20.4 ± 1.67 yrs 174 ± 0.06 cm 69.5 ± 6.73 kg | 3–5 × 15 m max UUS trials in prone body position | One underwater camera in the sagittal plane with a frame rate of 120 Hz and exposure time 1/500 s |  | Active full body range of motion |
Jensen and McIlain [45] | 2 international swimmers (1Â M, 1F) | NA | Â | One underwater sagittal camera with a frame rate of 48Â Hz | Segmental size parameters were calculated and used with the mean densities by Clauser et al. (1969) to give the inertial parameters needed for kinetic analysis | Anthropometric measurements taken of the lower extremity of the swimmers were used to formulate a geometric representation of the segments |
Lyttle et al. [42] | Study 1 40 national swimmers (M) | NA | Towed in a prone position 25 m at depths 0.6, 0.4 and 0.2 m underwater and at the surface. At each depth, swimmers were towed at 1.6 to 3.1 m s−1 in 0.3 m s−1 increments | One underwater sagittal camera. Frame rate not stated A variable-control, motorised winch and pulley system to accurately and consistently maintain a set velocity | Unidirectional load cell (frame rate not provided) |  |
Study 2 16 national swimmers (M) | Towed 25 m at a depth of 0.5 m underwater at velocities 1.6; 1.9; 2.2; 2.5 and 3.1 m s−1. At each velocity the swimmer performed maximal prone and lateral streamline glide, prone freestyle kick and, prone and lateral undulatory kick | |||||
Lyttle et al. [43] | 16 national swimmers | 19.3 ± 2.1 yrs 181 ± 5 cm 77.8 ± 6.2 kg | Towed 25 m at a depth of 0.5 m underwater at velocities 1.6; 1.9; 2.2; 2.5 and 3.1 m s−1. At each velocity the swimmer performed maximal prone and lateral streamline glide, prone freestyle kick and, prone and lateral undulatory kick | One underwater sagittal camera. Frame rate not stated A variable-control, motorised winch and pulley system to accurately and consistently maintain a set velocity | Unidirectional load cell (frame rate not provided) |  |
Miwa et al. [46] | 1 national swimmer (M) | NA | 5 × steady UUS in a swimming flume (1.0 m s−1) | One underwater sagittal camera with a frame rate of 15 Hz | Nylon tracer particles (50 μm) were admixed to the flume. A Nd:YAG laser was placed below the flume and illuminated the flow area in a sagittal plane |  |
Shimojo et al. [47] | 15 national swimmers (10 M, 5F) | 22.1 ± 4.7 yrs | Task 1 10 × 10 m UUS trials from a push start in the prone body position at different kick frequencies using a target sound | Four underwater sagittal view cameras with a sampling frequency of 60 Hz 2D analysis Target sounds at 75% (375–825 Hz) and 50% (450–750 Hz) kick frequency generated by underwater speakers |  |  |
Task 2 10 × 10 m UUS trials from a push start in the prone body position with no target sound | Four underwater sagittal view cameras with a sampling frequency of 60 Hz | |||||
Shimojo et al. [16] | 10 national swimmers (M) | 21.3 ± 0.9 yrs 175.5 ± 5.4 cm 71.3 ± 4.8 kg | 15 m maximal UUS from a push start in the prone body position at different kick frequencies determined by a programmed metronome sounds | Two underwater sagittal view cameras with a frame rate of 100 Hz Six-level metronome sounds corresponding to the kick frequencies; 85, 90, 95, 105, 110 & 115%, generated by underwater speakers |  |  |
Shimojo et al. [48] | 1 national swimmer (M) | 24 yrs 176 cm 81.0 kg | 41 × 15 s steady UUS in a swimming flume in prone body position (0.8 m s−1) (12–20 UUS cycles) | 18 underwater cameras with a frame rate of 120 Hz used to obtain 3D coordinate data Two underwater cameras captured flow) | Microbubbles (50 μm) were used as tracer particles. A double-pulsed Nd:YAG laser was irradiated through the bottom of the flume to illuminate the flow area (wavelength 342 nm, maximum power P = 1 kW) |  |
Shimojo et al. [38] Experiment 1: Propelling efficiency assessment Experiment 2: Kinematic assessment | Experiment 1 17 national swimmers (9 M, 8F) | Male swimmers: 19.7 ± 1.1 yrs 176 ± 4 cm 70.9 ± 8.5 kg Female swimmers: 19.6 ± 0.8 yrs 161 ± 8 cm 55.7 ± 7.9 kg | 2 × max UUS trials in prone body position (1 × with metronome device, 1 × with tape application aimed at restricting the swimmers ankle joints’ plantar flexors) | One underwater sagittal view camera with a frame rate of 60 Hz A tempo of 80% kick frequency was set in a waterproof metronome device |  | The ankle joint was taped to restrict plantar flexion. The active and passive plantar ankle flexions were measured on land |
Experiment 2 1 national swimmer (M) | 20 yrs 171 cm 65.1 kg | 2 × max UUS trials in prone body position (1 × with metronome device, 1 × with tape application aimed at restricting the swimmers ankle joints’ plantar flexors) | Six cameras around the swimmer with a frame rate of 120 Hz used to obtain 3D coordinate data A tempo of 80% kick frequency was set in a waterproof metronome device | |||
Wang and Liu [39] | 10 international swimmersa 10 regional club swimmersa | Elite: 22 ± 2 yrs 171 ± 6 cm 72 ± 6 kg Non-elite: 21 ± 1.8 yrs 171 ± 6 cm 65 ± 12 kg | 3 × max UUS trials in prone body position | One sagittal view camera with a frame rate of 60 Hz |  |  |
Willems et al. [24] | 26 national swimmers (15 M, 11F) | 16.4 ± 2.5 yrs 174 ± 9.6 cm 61.7 ± 9.6 kg | 3 × 10 m max UUS trials from a push start in prone body position. Feet were taped to restrict ankle movement | Four underwater cameras (sagittal, rear and bottom view) with a frame rate of 300 Hz 2D kinematic analysis |  | Goniometric measurements were used to determine ankle flexibility A hand held dynamometer measured ankle muscle strength |
Yamakawa et al. [40] | 8 national swimmers (F) | 20.9 ± 1.9 yrs 163 ± 6 cm 54.9 ± 5.3 kg | 15 m maximal UUS from a push start in the prone body position at different kick frequencies determined by a programmed metronome | Two underwater sagittal view cameras with a sampling frequency of 100 Hz Six-level metronome sounds corresponding to the kick frequencies; 85, 90, 95, 100, 105, 110 & 115% |  |  |
Yamakawa et al. [49] | 8 national swimmers (M) | 21.3 ± 0.7 yrs 173 ± 5 cm 70.3 ± 4.6 kg | 3 × 25 m trials; undulatory swimming with a board, UUS and butterfly swimming. from a push start in prone body position 3 × trials; undulatory swimming with a board, UUS and butterfly swimming in a swimming flume at 80% velocity of 110%V. Participants executed 10 stroke cycles during each trial | Twenty above and underwater cameras 3D motion analysis |  | Active lower body range of motion |