Table 3 Study characteristics

Ammann et al., 2016 [32]

12 subjects (5 F, 7 M; age: 25.3 ± 3.2 years; height: 174.4 ± 7.9 cm; weight: 64.8 ± 10.2 kg)

High-level running athletes

PARTwear (PW, HuCE-microLab, University of Applied Sciences, Biel, Switzerland)

3D accelerometer (± 16 g); 3D gyroscope; 3D magnetometer

2

Lace of the shoe

1000 Hz

OMC (Camera Marathon Ultra CL600, Videal AG, Niederonz, Switzerland)

Maximal sprinting speed (8.0 ± 0.5 m/s); intense training speed (6.2 ± 0.7 m/s); normal training speed (4.3 ± 0.7 m/s); all speeds (6.2 ± 1.6 m/s) (40 m)

Indoor track

Stance time

Bergamini et al., 2012 [33]

Group A: 6 amateur athletes (2F, 4 M; height: 172 ± 12 cm; weight: 63.50 ± 10.84 kg)

Group E: 5 elite athletes (2F, 3 M; height: 177 ± 76 cm; weight: 65.00 ± 8.25 kg)

Total: 11 participants (4F, 7 M; height: 174 ± 10 cm; weight: 64.18 ± 9.78 kg)

IMU (FreeSense, Sensorize, Italy)

3D accelerometer (± 6 g); 3D gyroscope (± 500°/s)

1

Lower back trunk (L1 level)

200 HZ

OMC (Casio Exilim EX-F1, Japan); 9 force platforms (Z20740AA, Kistler, Switzerland)

Three sprint runs of 60 m

Indoor track; outdoor training track

Stance time, stride time

Brahms et al., 2018 [34]

11 healthy young adults (4F, 7 M; age: 22.3 ± 1.5 years; height: 175.2 ± 23.1 cm; weight: 76.04 ± 3.19 kg)

Xsens (MTw)

–

1

Right foot

100 Hz

OMC (Vicon)

A range of typical distance running speeds/10 m trial runs (3.55 ± 0.34 m/s, range: 2.71–4.36 m/s)

Indoor

Stride length

Cooper et al., 2009 [35]

7 subjects (2F, 5 M; age: 30 ± 6 years; height: 170 ± 20 cm; weight: 70 ± 11 kg)

IMU (ETB Ltd, Codicote, UK)

3D accelerometer (± 5 g); 3D gyroscopes (± 1200°/s)

2

Thigh and shank

100 Hz

OMC (Qualysis)

5 mile/hour

Treadmill

Knee joint flexion/extension angles

Day et al., 2021 [36]

30 subjects (21F; weight: 54.0 ± 5.3 kg; 9 M; weight: 63.6 ± 6.7 kg)

National Collegiate Athletic Association Division 1 cross country runners

IMU (IMeasureU, Auckland, New Zealand)

–

1

Over waistband

500 Hz

Instrumented treadmill (Treadmetrix, Park City, UT/Bertec, Columbus, OH)

M: 3.8, 4.1 and 5.4 m/s; F: 3.8 and 4.9 m/s

Treadmill

Stance time

Deflandre et al., 2018 [37]

Reliability: 10 young male athletes (age: 14 ± 0.5 years; height: 168 ± 7 cm; weight: 56 ± 9 kg)

Validity: 20 male athletes (age: 32 ± 14 years; height: 181 ± 16 cm; weight: 71 ± 7 kg)

Myotest (Myotest SA, Sion, Switzerland)

3D accelerometer

1

The iliac crests mark, in the alignment with the umbilicus

Hz

The Optogait (Microgate, Bolzano, Italy); 3D optoelectronic CX1 units (Codamotion, Charnwood Dynamics Ltd, UK)

8 km/h, 12 km/h and 16 km/h (80 m); 8 km/h and 16 km/h

Outside: artificial turf field; indoor: treadmill

Stance time, step length, stride length, step frequency

De Fontenay et al., 2020 [38]

32 healthy participants (13F, 19 M; age: 27.0 ± 5.5 years; height: 174.4 ± 8.5 cm; weight: 69.1 ± 11.4 kg)

32 participants were analyzed for RunScribeTM, 31 participants were analyzed for MilestonePod and TgForce, 30 for Zoi, and 25 for Moov NowTM

Moov Now™ (Moov, San Mateo, California, USA); MilestonePod (Milestone Sports, Long beach, California, USA); RunScribe™ (Montara, California, USA); Zoi (Runteq, Tampere, Finland); TgForce (Kelsec Systems Inc.,Montréal, Canada)

–

–

Moov Now™: outside of the ankle and the loop end of the band forward; MilestonePod: shoelaces; RunScribe™: heel mount; Zoi: chest strap and shoelaces; TgForce: medial end of tibia

–

OMC (Vicon); Instrumented treadmill with force plates (Bertec, Columbus, OH, USA)

-

Treadmill

Step frequency

Dorschky et al., 2019 [39]

10 healthy male subjects (age: 27.1 ± 2.6 years; height: 182 ± 5 cm; weight: 76.9 ± 8.6 kg)

Custom-built IMUs (Portabiles GmbH, Erlangen, DE)

3D accelerometers (± 16 g); Gyroscopes (± 2000°/s)

7

Lower back, right and left lateral thigh, lateral shank, and upper midfoot

1000 Hz

OMC (Vicon MX, Oxford, UK); Force plate (Kistler Instruments Corp, Winterhur, CH)

3.0–4.9 m/s

Indoor

Hip, knee, and ankle angles in the sagittal plane

Falbriard et al., 2018 [40]

41 healthy adults (13F, 28 M; age: 29 ± 6 years; height 174 ± 8 cm; weight 70 ± 10 kg)

IMU (Physilog 4, Gait Up, Switzerland)

3D accelerometer (± 16 g); 3D gyroscope (± 2000 ◦/s)

2

Dorsum of each foot

500 Hz

Instrumented treadmill (T-170-FMT, Arsalis, Belgium)

Starting at 8 km/h and increasing by 2 km/h up to maximum speed

Treadmill

Stance time, flight time, swing time, step time

Fox et al., 2019 [41]

26 recreationally active participants (age: 32.2 ± 11.0 years; height: 173.3 ± 9.9 cm; weight: 74.2 ± 16.2 kg)

Polar Team Pro Sensor (Polar Electro, Kempele, Finland)

GPS; accelerometer; gyroscope; digital compass

2

Upper-torso between the scapulae and the centre of the chest at the level of the xiphoid process

200 Hz

Electronic timing light (Fusion Sport, Coopers Plains, QLD, Australia)

Medium (moderate, jogging) speed; high (maximal, sprint) speed

Indoor (sprung hardwood floor)

Running speed

García-Pinillos et al., 2019 [42]

49 amateur endurance runners (5F, 44 M; age: 26 ± 8 years; height: 174 ± 7 cm; weight: 71 ± 10 kg)

Stryd™ (Stryd Powermeter, Stryd Inc. Boulder CO, USA); RunScribe™ (Scribe Lab. Inc. San Francisco CA, USA)

Stryd™: 3D gyroscope; 3D accelerometer

RunScribe™: 3D gyroscope; 3D accelerometer; 3D magnetometer

2

Lace shoe of the right leg

RunScribe™: 500 Hz

OMC (Imaging Source DFK 33UX174, The Imaging Source Europe GmbH; Germany)

Self-selected comfortable running velocity: 3.25 ± 0.36 m/s

Treadmill

Stance time, flight time, step length, step frequency

Gindre et al., 2016 [43]

20 habitual male runners (age: 31.6 ± 9.2 years, height: 178 ± 5.4 cm, weight: 72.5 ± 9.8 kg)

Myotest®

–

1

Around the waist of participants

500 Hz

The Optojump Next®; OMC (Casio High Speed EXILIM EX-FH25®, CASIO Europe GmbH, Norderstedt, Germany)

12 m/h; 15 km/h; 18 km/h; 21 km/h (60 m)

Indoor

Stance time, aerial time, step frequency

Kim et al., 2021 [44]

10 healthy male participants (age: 30.2 ± 5.3 years, height: 171 ± 15.3 cm, weight: 73.6 ± 12.4 kg

Adafruit BNO055 IMU sensors (Adafruit, New York, NY, USA)

–

2

Top of the instep of the right foot, and the right shin

100 Hz

OMC (VICON, Oxford, UK)

2.68 m/s

Indoor

Ankle dorsiflexion/plantarflexion and eversion/inversion angle

Koldenhoven and Hertel, 2018 [45]

12 recreational runners (6F, 6 M; age: 23.1 ± 5.5 years)

RunScribe™ (Scribe Labs, Inc., Half Moon Bay, CA, USA)

3D accelerometer; gyroscope

2

The back of each shoe

Hz

OMC (Vicon Motion Systems, Inc., Lake Forest, CA, USA); Instrumented treadmill (Bertec, Columbus, OH, USA)

Preferred speed: 2.7 ± 0.1 m/s; 1.5 miles

Treadmill

Stance time, cycle time, stride length, running speed

Konharn et al., 2016 [46]

30 normal-weight participants (15F, 15 M; age: 21.7 ± 1.0 years; height: 163.3 ± 19.5 cm; weight: 59.4 ± 8.5 kg)

Apps (Runtastic pedometer, Footsteps pedometer, and Walker pedometer) were downloaded into iPhone5 (iOS 7.0.3, Apple, Inc, CA, USA)

–

1

Right hip at the midline

–

The OZ1 Marathon treadmill (Marathon (Thailand) Co., Ltd., Bangkok, Thailand); The HJ-203 Omron pedometer (Omron Healthcare, Co., Ltd., Kyoto, Japan)

Moderate: 6.4 km/h; vigorous: 8 km/h

Treadmill

Running speed

Koska et al., 2018 [47]

51 recreational runners (15F, 36 M; 33.9 ± 8.2 years, height: 177.9 ± 7.6 cm; weight: 70.9 ± 10.1 kg)

IMU (aims®, Xybermind, Tübingen, Germany)

3D accelerometer (± 16 g); gyroscope (± 2000°/s)

1

The heel cup of the right shoe

400 Hz

OMC (Qualisys, Gothenburg, Sweden)

10 m/h; 12 km/h; 15 km/h

Treadmill

Rearfoot sagittal/eversion ROM

Li et al., 2020 [48]

10 healthy subjects (age > 18 years; height: 170 ± 10 cm; weight: 75 ± 10 kg)

Microelectromechanical system (MEMS) IMUs

-

7

The left side of the waist, bilateral knees above and below, bilateral feet

50 Hz

NDI system (NDI, Ontario, Canada)

5.1 km/h

Indoor

Hip, knee, and ankle angles in the sagittal plane

Mavor et al., 2020 [12]

20 civilian participants (10F, 10 M; age: 23.7 ± 3.44 years; height: 175 ± 7.93 cm; 71.9 ± 13.2 kg)

IMU (MVN BIOMECH, Xsens, Enschede, the Netherlands)

–

17

The back of the head, sacrum, sternum, and bilaterally on the upper arms, forearms, hands, shoulders, thighs, shanks, and feet

240 Hz

OMC (Vantage 5, Vicon, Oxford, UK)

-

Indoor

Hip, knee, and ankle flexion–extension, ab/adduction and axial rotation angle

Mo and Chow, 2018 [49]

11 healthy volunteers (4F, 7 M; age: 25.5 ± 4.2 years; height: 168.3 ± 9.1 cm; weight: 58.8 ± 5.3 kg)

IMU system (MyoMOTION MR3, Noraxon, USA)

3D accelerometer (± 16 g)

5

Sacrum (L5-S1), shanks (anteromedial distal aspect of the tibia) and feet (the dorsal surface of the shoe)

200 Hz

Force-platforms (Bertec, FP4060-07, USA)

Jog (3.1 ± 0.1 m/s); run (4.1 ± 1.2 m/s)

Indoor: 10 m walkway

Stance time

Nüesch et al., 2017 [50]

20 healthy subjects (12F, 8 M; age: 27.4 ± 8.3 years; height: 175 ± 8 cm; weight: 66.5 ± 12.5 kg)

IMU (RehaGait®, Hasomed, Magdeburg, Germany)

3D accelerometer (± 16 g); 3D gyroscope (± 2000°/s); 3D magnetometer (± 1.3 Gs)

7

The sacrum and bilaterally on the lateral thigh (middle), lateral shank (lower third), and lateral foot (on the shoe, below lateral malleolus)

400 Hz

OMC (Vicon MX, Vicon Motion Systems Ltd., Oxford, UK)

Self-selected running speed (2.93 ± 0.35 m/s)

Treadmill

Hip, knee, and ankle angles in the sagittal plane/at initial contact; maximal/minimal ankle angle; ankle dorsiflexion/ plantarflexion ROM; hip and knee ROM (first and second half stride)

Schmidt et al., 2016 [51]

12 track and field athletes (2F, 10 M)

IMU (MPU-9150) from InvenSense

3D accelerometer (16 bit and ± 16 g range); 3D gyroscope (16 bit and ± 1000°/s); 3D magnet field sensor

2

Ankles

1000 Hz

OptojumpNext photocell system (Microgate, Bolzano, Italy / OJ)

Maximal sprints on a 60 m track

Track

Stance time

Watari et al., 2016 [52]

22 semi-elite runners (8F, 14 M; age: 28.2 ± 10.1 years; height: 173 ± 75 cm; weight: 65.4 ± 8.1 kg)

Built-in accelerometer (Forerunner 620, Garmin International Inc., Olathe, KS)

–

1

Torso of the runner, near the xiphoid process of the sternum

–

Instrumented treadmill (Bertec, Columbus, OH); OMC (Vicon Motion System, Vicon MX3, Oxford, UK) motion capture system

2.7 m/s; 3.0 m/s; 3.3 m/s; 3.6 m/s; 3.9 m/s

Treadmill

Stance time

Wouda et al., 2018 [53]

8 healthy experienced male runners (age: 25.1 ± 5.2 years; height: 183.7 ± 4.5 cm; weight: 77.7 ± 9.4 kg)

Xsens MVN Link inertial motion capture system (Xsens, Enschede, the Netherlands)

–

17

Both shoulders, upper arms, lower arms, hands, upper legs, lower legs, feet, head, sternum, and pelvis

240 Hz

OMC (Nexus 1.8.5, Vicon, Oxford, UK); S-Mill instrumented treadmill (ForceLink, Culemborg, the Netherlands)

10 m/h; 12 km/h; 14 km/h

Treadmill

Maximum knee flexion/extension angle during Stance

Zrenner et al., 2018 [54]

27 amateur runners (6F, 21 M; age: 24.9 ± 2.4 years; height: 178.6 ± 8.0 cm)

miPod IMU sensor

Accelerometer (± 16 g); gyroscope (± 2000 ◦/s)

2

A cavity in the right and left shoes midsole

200 Hz

OMC (Vicon Motion Systems Inc., Oxford, UK)

2–6 m/s

Indoor

Stride length, running speed

Zrenner et al., 2020 [55]

29 amateur runners (6F, 23 M; age: 24.9 ± 2.4 years)

miPod IMU sensors

Accelerometer (± 16 g); gyroscope (± 2000 ◦/s)

8

A cavity in the sole of the running shoe, laterally under the ankle, at the heel, and on the instep

200 Hz

OMC (Vicon Motion Systems Inc., Oxford, UK)

2–6 m/s

Indoor

Stance time, stride time, stride length, running speed, rearfoot ROM in the frontal plane