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Table 1 Summary of included studies

From: Effects of Plyometric Training on Lower Body Muscle Architecture, Tendon Structure, Stiffness and Physical Performance: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

Study

Population

Characteristics plyometric training programme

Selected Variables

Sample size (N):

Male (M)/Female(F)

Age (years)

Physical fitness

Muscle architecture

Tendon structure

Muscle and tendon stiffness

Lower body physical performance

Jump

Sprint

Strength

Blazevich et al. [49]

N = 23 (15M/8F)

SQ = 8 (5M/3F)

FHS = 7 (5M/2F)

SJT = 8 (5M/3F)

22.1 ± 1.9

Competitive athletes such as rugby union, rugby league, soccer, or netball players

9 weeks

4 days/week

36 sessions

60 min/session

VL Muscle thickness

RF Muscle thickness

VL Fascicle angle

RF Fascicle angle

VL Fascicle length

RF Fascicle length

  

Force and displacement in CMJ

20 m sprint time

Forward hack squat double leg

Burgess et al. [37]

N = 13 (M)

PT = 7

IT = 6

23 ± 6

Not defined

6 weeks

2–3 days/week

950 jumps approx

  

Medial gastrocnemius tendon stiffness

SJ height

 

Concentric rate of force development

Coratella, et al. [50]

N = 48 (M)

BMSJT = 16

WJST = 16

CG = 16

21 ± 3

Recreational soccer players

8 weeks

2 days/week

16 sessions

20–25 min/sessions

BMSJT = 800 jumps

WJST = 656 jumps

VL Muscle thickness

VL Pennation angle

VL Fascicle length

  

CMJ height

SJ height

30 m sprint time

Quadriceps concentric peak-torque

Correa et al. [60]

N = 58 (F)

EG = 41 After 6 weeks was further divided into 3 subgroups (TG = 14, PG = 13, RG = 14)

CG = 17

67 ± 5

Older women

12 weeks (divided into two 6-week phases)

2 days/week

24 sessions

VL Muscle thickness

VM Muscle thickness

RF Muscle thickness

  

CMJ height

 

1 RM-knee extension

Fouré et al. [36]

N = 17 (M)

PT = 9

CG = 8

PT 18.8 ± 0.9

CG 18.9 ± 1.0

Explosive sport practice (basketball, volleyball and handball)

8 weeks

2 days/week

16 sessions

60 min/session

3200 jumps

  

Maximal stiffness of gastrocnemius

Achilles tendon stiffness

SJ height

 

Maximal torque in plantar flexion

Fouré, et al. [38]

N = 19 (M)

PT = 9

CG = 10

PT 18.8 ± 0.9

CG 18.9 ± 1.0

Regular sport practice

14 weeks

2–3 days/week

34 sessions

60 min/session

6800 jumps

 

Achilles tendon CSA

Tendon stiffness

CMJ height

SJ height

 

MVC

Fouré et al. [18]

N = 19 (M)

PT = 9

CG = 10

PT 18.8 ± 0.9

CG 18.9 ± 1.0

Regular sport practice

14 weeks

2–3 days/week

34 sessions

60 min/session

6800 jumps

CSA Triceps surae

Pennation angle triceps surae (medial gastrocnemius. lateral gastrocnemius, soleus)

Fascicle length triceps surae (medial gastrocnemius. lateral gastrocnemius, soleus)

Achilles tendon CSA

Passive part of the series elastic component stiffness (gastrocnemius tendon)

CMJ height

SJ height

  

Fouré et al. [59]

N = 19 (M)

PT = 9

CG = 10

PT 19.6 ± 1.8

CG 22.1 ± 3.7

Regular sport practice

14 weeks

2–3 days/week

34 sessions

60 min/session

6800 jumps

CSA of the gastrocnemius muscles

Achilles tendon CSA

Stiffness index of Achilles tendon

Stiffness index of gastrocnemius muscles

  

Maximal passive force of gastrocnemius

Franchi et al. [51]

N = 23 (M)

YM = 14

OM = 9

YM 25.4 ± 3.5

OM 69.7 ± 3.4

Young and older men

6 weeks

3 days/week

18 sessions

VL Muscle thickness

VL Pennation angle

VL Fascicle length

    

MVC

Grosset, et al. [65]

N = 30 (20 M/10F)

PT = 9 (6 M/3F)

ET = 21 (14 M/7F)

PT 21.0 ± 2.3

ET 21.3 ± 0.3

Sedentary college students

10 weeks

2 days/week

20 sessions

25–45 min/session

5000 jumps

   

DJ height

 

MVC

Helland et al. [52]

N = 39 (29 M/10F)

OWL = 13 (9 M/4F)

MSPT = 13 (10 M/3F)

FSPT = 13 (10 M/3F)

20 ± 3

Badminton, volleyball, and hockey players from a Norwegian High School for elite sports

8 weeks

2–3 days/week

21 sessions

OWL 45 min/session

MSP 25 min/session

FSP 35 min/session

VL Muscle thickness

RF Muscle thickness

VL Pennation angle

VL Fascicle length

  

CMJ height

SJ height

DJ 40 cm height

30 m sprint time

1 RM squat

Hirayama et al. [63]

N = 21 (M)

PT = 11

CG = 10

PT 22 ± 3

CG 22 ± 4

Recreationally active males

12 weeks

3 days/week

36 sessions

  

Achilles tendon stiffness

  

Static plantar flexion torque

Horiuchi et al. [66]

N = 20 (M)

BFR = 10

CG = 10

BFR 23.3 ± 2.5

CG 22.4 ± 1.7

Untrained healthy males

4 weeks

4 days/week

16 sessions

   

CMJ height

SJ height

 

Knee extension

Horwath et al. [53]

N = 22 (M)

ISO/ECC = 11

TRAD = 11

18 ± 1

Resistance-trained ice hockey players

8 weeks

2–3 days/week

21 sessions

VL Muscle thickness

VM Muscle thickness

RF Muscle thickness

  

CMJ height

DJ height

30 m sprint time

1 RM

Houghton et al. [25]

N = 15 (M)

PT = 7

CG = 8

21.6 ± 4

Players from local district-grade cricket clubs

8 weeks

2–3 days/week

16–24 sessions

1785 jumps

 

Achilles tendon CSA

Achilles tendon stiffness

CMJ height

SJ height

5 m sprint time

 

Hunter and Marshall [67]

N = 50 (M)

P = 11

S = 11

PS = 14

CG = 14

24 ± 4

Athletes (primarily basketball and volleyball players), with little experience in endurance training

10 weeks

2 days/week

20 sessions

25–60 min/session

   

CMJ height

DJ 30 cm height

  

Kijowksi et al. [68]

N = 19 (M)

TG = 9

CG = 10

TG 21.1 ± 1.2

CG 22.5 ± 2.0

Subjects had at least 2 years of previous experience with recreational strength and power training and were not involved in any competitive athletic sports

4 weeks

2 days/week

8 sessions

     

Squat 1RM/BM

Kubo et al. [28]

N = 10 (M)

PT = 10

WT = 10

Subjects performed plyometric training on one side (PT) and weight training on the other side (WT). In each subject, the right and left legs were randomly allocated to the training protocols

22 ± 2

Healthy males without experience of regular exercise training

12 weeks

4 days/week

48 sessions

 

Achilles tendon

CSA

Achilles tendon stiffness

CMJ height

SJ height

DJ height

 

MVC

Kubo et al. [54]

N = 11 (M)

PT = 11

IT = 11

One leg performed plyometric training (PLY) and the other leg performed isometric training (ISO). In each subject, the right and left legs were allocated to the training protocols in a random manner

22.5 ± 3.2

Healthy males without experience of regular exercise training

12 weeks

3 days/week

36 sessions

Muscle thickness of triceps surae (medial gastrocnemius. lateral gastrocnemius, soleus)

Achilles tendon

CSA

Stiffness

Passive muscle stiffness

CMJ height

DJ height

 

MVC

Kubo et al. [61]

N = 21 (M)

PT = 11

CG = 10

PT 20.9 ± 1.6

CG 21.0 ± 1.4

Healthy male college students (any regular training for at least 2 years before)

12 weeks

3 days/week

36 sessions

Muscle thickness of triceps surae (medial gastrocnemius, lateral gastrocnemius, soleus)

Achilles tendon

CSA

Achilles tendon stiffness

CMJ height

SJ height

DJ height

  

Kudo et al. [55]

N = 21 (14 M/7F)

ECR = 11 (8 M/3F)

NCR = 10 (6 M/4F)

ECR 21.2 ± 3.9

NCR 19.6 ± 0.7

Healthy and normal volunteers

12 weeks

7 days/week

84 sessions

ECR 15 × 3 repetitions daily in two sets

NCR 20 × 3 repetitions daily in two sets

Muscle thickness of triceps surae (medial gastrocnemius)

Pennation angle of triceps surae (medial gastrocnemius)

Fascicle length of triceps surae (medial gastrocnemius)

     

Laurent et al. [27]

N = 32 (17 M/15F)

TG KE = 11 (6 M/5F)

TG KF = 11 (6 M/5F)

CG = 10 (5 M/5F)

19 to 26

Physically active Sport Science and Physiotherapy students

10 weeks

2 days/week

20 sessions

2980 jumps

 

Achilles tendon CSA

Achilles tendon stiffness

CMJ height

DJ 40 cm height

 

MVC

Monti et al. [56]

N = 8 (M)

25.3 ± 4.6

Healthy, fully independent and recreationally active volunteers

6 weeks

3 days/week

18 sessions

20–25 min/session

2160–2700 jumps

VL CSA

VL Pennation angle

VL Fascicle length

    

MVC

Ogiso and Miki [64]

N = 23 (M)

EMS = 8

Non-EMS = 9

CG = 6

EMS 21.0 ± 0.8

Non-EMS 19.2 ± 0.8

CG 21.7 ± 0.5

Healthy men with no orthopaedic or neuromuscular disorders and who train regularly

3 weeks

3 days/week

9 sessions

  

Achilles tendon stiffness

CMJ height

SJ height

DJ height

 

MVC torque 90 º

Paleckis et al. [26]

N = 9 (M)

21.6 ± 3.2

Healthy physically active untrained young men

9 days

daily

9 sessions

   

CMJ height

 

MVC of quadriceps femoris

Potach et al. [69]

N = 16 (4 M/12F)

PT = 8 (2 M/6F)

CG = 8 (2 M/6F)

Not defined

College students

4 weeks

2 days/week

8 sessions

   

CMJ height

  

Stien et al. [57]

N = 52 (F)

OS = 18 17

OL = 18 17

CG = 16

21.2 ± 1.7

Resistance-trained women students

8 weeks

2–3 days/week

16–24 sessions

1380 jumps

VL Muscle thickness

     

Taube et al. [70]

N = 33 (19 M/14F)

SSC1 = 11 (7 M/4F)

SSC2 = 11 (7 M/4F)

CG = 11 (5 M/6F)

SSC1 24 ± 3

SSC2 25 ± 4

CG 24 ± 3

Healthy subjects participated in sporting activities containing jumps

4 weeks

3 days/week

12 sessions

45–60 min/session

   

DJ height

  

Ullrich et al. [58]

N = 22 (12 M/10F)

TP = 11 (6 M/5F)

DUP = 11 (6 M/5F)

24.3 ± 2.6

Amateur athletes (soccer, handball, basketball, tennis and field hockey players)

6 weeks

3 days/week

18 sessions

40 min/session

540 jumps

VL Muscle thickness

RF Muscle thickness

VL Pennation angle

RF Pennation angle

VL Fascicle length

RF Fascicle length

  

CMJ height

 

Bilateral leg extension MVC 90º

Van der Zwaard et al. [62]

N = 21 (F)

APL = 7

no APL = 19

26 ± 4

Elite female rowers of the national team

16 weeks

1 day/week

16 sessions

VL Fascicle length

VL Pennation angle

     

Wu et al. [39]

N = 21 (M)

PT = 11

CG = 10

PT 22.1 ± 1.6

CG 22.3 ± 1.6

Students at university student centre

8 weeks

2 days/week

16 sessions

  

Achilles tendon stiffness

CMJ height

  

Zubac and Simunic [71]

N = 20 (10 M/10F)

PT = 10

CG = 10

22.4 ± 4.7

Healthy active individuals for more than 5 h per week

8 weeks

3 days/week

24 sessions

45 min/session

   

CMJ height

  
  1. Abbreviations: APL, Additional plyometric loading; BFR, Jump Training with Blood Flow Restriction; BMSJT, Body Mass Squat Jump Training; CG, Control Group; CMJ, Countermovement Jump; CSA, Cross Sectional Area; DJ, Drop Jump; DUP, Daily Undulating Periodisation; ECR, Eccentric Calf Raise Exercise Group; EG, Experimental Group; EMS, Electromyostimulation; ET, Endurance Training; F, Female; FHS, Forward Hack Squat Training; FSPT, Free Weight Strength and Power Training; IP, Incline Plyometrics Group; ISO/ECC, Isokinetic Resistance Training and Eccentric Overload; IT, Isometric Training; M, Male; MSPT, Motorised Strength and Power Training; MVC, Maximal Voluntary Contraction; NCR, Normal Calf Raise Exercise Group; OL, Plyometric Training Utilising Overspeed; OM, Older Males; OS, Plyometric Training Utilising Overload; OWL, Olympic-style Weightlifting; P, Power Training to Increase Vertical Jump Height; PG, Power Group; PP, Plane Plyometrics; PS, Combination of Power and Stretch Training; PT, Plyometric Training Group; RF, Rectus Femoris; RG, Rapid Strength Group; RM, Maximum Repetition; S, Stretching to Increase Flexibility; SJ, Squat Jump; SJT, Sprint/jump Training Only; SQ, Squat Lift Training; SSC1, Stretch–shortening cycle doing drop jumps from 30, 50, and 75 cm drop heights; SSC2, Stretch–shortening cycle doing drop jumps exclusively from 30 cm; TG, Traditional Group; TG KE, Knees Extended Training Group; TG KF, Knees Flexed Training Group; TP, Traditional Periodisation; TRAD, Traditional Resistance Training; TS, Triceps Surae; VL, Vastus lateralis; VM, Vastus Medialis; WJST, Weighted Jump Squat; WT, Weight Training; YM, Young Males