Table 1 Summary of the included studies

Andrade et al. [44]

23.2 ± 2.2

180 ± 10

79.0 ± 6.0

Elite (Brazilian Open Circuit, World

Championships and Olympic Games)

0/3/3

Beach Volleyball

3 weeks; Overall RPE and sRPE

CR10

2 coaches;

1 tactical-technical and 1 physical fitness (> 15 yrs of professional coaching experience)

RPE

 1st week: Coaches > Athletes (Likely difference)

 2nd week: Coaches = Athletes

 3rd week: Coaches = Athletes

 Physical fitness training sessions: Coaches > Athletes (Likely difference)

 Strength training sessions: Coaches > Athletes (Likely difference)

 Tactical-technical training sessions: Coaches = Athletes

sRPE

 1st week: Coaches > Athletes

 2nd week: Coaches = Athletes

 3rd week: Coaches = Athletes

 Physical fitness training sessions: Coaches < Athletes (Probable difference)

 Strength training sessions: Coaches > Athletes (Probable difference)

 Tactical-technical training sessions: Coaches = Athletes

Andrade Nogueira et al. [25]

24 ± 2.8

189.3 ± 9.7

84.6 ± 11.1

Professional (Brazilian first division

league)

15/0/15

Volleyball

34 training sessions; 2 (5.9%) easy, 23 (67.6%) moderate and 9 (26.5%) hard sessions; RPE for easy, moderate and hard zones

CR10

RPE

Easy < 3

Mod. 3–5

Hard > 5

1 coach

RPE

 Easy zone: Coaches < Athletes (P < 0.01)

 Moderate zone: Coaches < Athletes (P < 0.01)

 Hard zone: Coaches > Athletes (P < 0.01)

Barnes et al. [19]

M: 20.2 ± 1.4; F: 19.7 ± 1.6

M: 176.6 ± 7.8; F: 168.4 ± 6.5

M: 67.9 ± 7.1; F: 53.9 ± 6.0

Highly trained

13/12/25

Cross-country runners

110 training days

(3024 sessions; 1875 (62%) easy, 544 (18%) moderate and 605 (20%) hard sessions); RPE and sRPE for overall, easy, moderate and hard zones

CR10

RPE

Easy < 3

Mod. 3–5

Hard > 5

2 coaches

RPE

 Easy zone: Coach < M athlete (P < 0.0001), and F athlete (P < 0.001)

 Moderate zone: Coach < M athlete (P = 0.001); Coach = F athlete (P = 0.38)

 Hard zone: Coach = M athlete (P = 0.91); Coach > F athlete (P = 0.006)

sRPE

 Easy zone: Coach < M athlete (P < 0.0001), and F athlete (P < 0.001)

 Moderate zone: Coach < M athlete (P = 0.002); Coach = F athlete (P = 0.61)

 Hard zone: Coach = M athlete (P = 0.68); Coach > F athlete (P = 0.008)

Barroso et al. [26]

11–12 yrs: 11.2 ± 0.4; 13–14 yrs: 13.4 ± 0.5; 15–16 yrs: 15.4 ± 0.6

11–12 yrs: 146.7 ± 4,5; 13–14 yrs: 158.4 ± 6.9; 15–16 yrs: 169.6 ± 6.1

11–12 yrs: 38.8 ± 2.4; 13–14 yrs: 49.6 ± 5.4; 15–16 yrs: 60.1 ± 5.8

Local, State and

National level

NR/NR/160

Swimming

9 training sessions; NR n easy, NR n moderate and NR n hard sessions; RPE for easy, moderate and hard zones

CR10

RPE

Easy < 3

Mod. 3–5

Hard > 5

9 coaches; 11–12 yrs: 13.2 ± 1.9 yrs of competitive coaching experience;

13–14 yrs: 12.1 ± 1.7 yrs of competitive coaching experience;

15–16 yrs: 14.5 ± 2.7 yrs of competitive coaching experience

RPE (range 11–12 years old)

 Easy and moderate for Athletes > Coaches (P < 0.05)

 Hard for Athletes < Coaches (P < 0.05)

RPE (range 13–14 yrs old)

 Easy and moderate for Athletes > Coaches (P < 0.05)

 Hard for Athletes < Coaches (P < 0.05)

RPE (range 15–16 yrs old)

 Easy and moderate for Athletes = Coaches (P > 0.05)

 Hard for Athletes < Coaches (P < 0.05)

Correlations

 Range 11–12 yrs old: r = 0.31 (P < 0.001)

 Range 13–14 yrs old: r = 0.51 (P < 0.001)

 Range 15–16 yrs old: r = 0.74 (P < 0.001)

Barroso et al. [38]

21.1 ± 1.1

178 ± 6

74.1 ± 8.3

Moderately trained

13/0/13

Swimming

4 training sessions; Overall RPE

CR10

1 coach (7 yrs coaching experience)

RPE

 Overall: Coach > Athletes (10 × 200 m (P = 0.005) and 5 × 400 m (P = 0.033)

Brink et al. [5]

U17; U19

U17: 174.5 ± 7.9

U19: 178.3 ± 7.1

U17: 61.7 ± 6.5

U19: 71.1 ± 8.6

Professional

33/0/33

Soccer

2446 training sessions; NR n easy, NR n moderate and NR n hard sessions; RPE and sRPE for overall, easy, moderate and hard zones

6 to 20

Borg scale

RPE

Easy < 13

Mod.13–14

Hard > 14

2 coaches; (numerous yrs of experience

at the highest level -UEFA A and PRO

license)

RPE

 Overall: Coaches < Athletes (P < 0.0001)

 Easy zone: Coaches < Athletes (P < 0.0001)

 Moderate zone: Coaches < Athletes (P < 0.0001)

 Hard zone: Coaches > Athletes (P < 0.0001)

sRPE

 Overall: Coaches < Athletes (P < 0.0001)

 Easy zone: Coaches < Athletes (P < 0.0001)

 Moderate zone: Coaches < Athletes (P < 0.0001)

 Hard zone: Coaches > Athletes (P < 0.0001)

Duration

 Overall: Coaches = Athletes (P > 0.05)

 Easy zone: Coaches = Athletes (P > 0.05)

 Moderate zone: Coaches = Athletes (P > 0.05)

 Hard zone: Coaches > Athletes (P < 0.0001)

Correlations

 RPE Coaches and Athletes: r = 0.24 (P < 0.0001)

 sRPE Coaches and Athletes: r = 0.41 (P < 0.0001)

 Duration Coaches and Athletes: r = 0.49 (P < 0.0001)

Brink et al. [39]

U15: 14.3 ± 0.3 U17: 16.3 ± 0.2

U15: 168.1 ± 11.1

U17: 179.9 ± 4.9

U15: 56.3 ± 12.9

U17: 67.8 ± 5.2

Highest level of competition in the Netherlands

31/0/31

Soccer

977 training sessions

(8 weeks); U15 = 445 sessions; U17 = 532 sessions; Overall RPE, RIE and ROE

6 to 20

Borg scale

2 coaches; 1 U15 coach = 18 yrs of professional coaching experience; 1 U17 coach = 23 yrs of professional coaching experience

RPE

 Coaches RIE and ROE < Athlete's RPE (P < 0.01)

Correlations

 Coaches RIE and Athlete's RPE: r = 0.58 (P < 0.01)

 Coaches ROE and Athlete's RPE: r = 0.64 (P < 0.01)

Cruz et al. [27]

14.0 ± 1.32

162.7 ± 9.3

52.4 ± 11.5

State level

15/13/28

Track and field

4 weeks (20 training sessions); NR n easy, NR n moderate and NR n hard sessions; RPE for overall, easy, moderate and hard zones

CR10

RPE

Easy < 3

Mod. 3–5

Hard > 5

1 coach (6 yrs of experience)

RPE

 Overall: Coach > Athletes (P < 0.001)

 Easy zone: Coach > Athletes (P < 0.001)

 Moderate zone: Coach > Athletes (P < 0.001)

 Hard zone: Coach < Athletes (P < 0.001)

Doeven et al. [40]

26.7 ± 3.8

197.2 ± 9.1

100.3 ± 15.2

Elite

14/0/14

Basketball

15 matches within 6 weeks (2.5 matches/week); Overall RPE, ROE and sRPE

6 to 20

Borg scale

3 coaches:

1 head coach (> 10 yrs of elite coaching experience), 1 assistant coach and 1 strength and conditioning coach

RPE

 Coaches ROE > Athlete's RPE (P = 0.029)

Correlations

 Coaches ROE and Athlete's RPE: r = 0.25 (P < 0.01)

Figueiredo et al. [15]

18.7 ± 0.7

175.3 ± 5.5

68.7 ± 6.5

Elite U19

16/0/16

Soccer

3 weeks (15 training sessions, 5 training sessions (1 training session per day) per week); Overall RPE and sRPE

CR10

2 coaches:

1 technical coach and

1 fitness coach

RPE

 Athletes = Coaches (P = 0.62)

sRPE

 Athletes = Coaches (P = 0.86)

Correlations (sRPE)

 Coaches and Athletes: r = 0.84 (P < 0.001)

Foster et al. [17]

NR

NR

NR

Competitive

6/9/15

Middle and long distance runners

5 weeks training sessions; NR n easy, NR n moderate and NR n hard sessions; RPE and sRPE for easy, moderate and hard zones

CR10

RPE

Easy < 3

Mod. 3–5

Hard > 5

3 coaches

(each athlete had only one coach)

RPE

 Easy zone: Coaches < Athletes (P < 0.05)

 Moderate zone: Coaches = Athletes (P > 0.05)

 Hard zone: Coaches > Athletes (P < 0.05)

sRPE

 Easy zone: Coaches < Athletes (P < 0.05)

 Moderate zone: Coaches = Athletes (P > 0.05)

 Hard zone: Coaches > Athletes (P < 0.05)

Duration

 Easy zone: Coaches = Athletes (P > 0.05)

 Moderate zone: Coaches = Athletes (P > 0.05)

 Hard zone: Coaches = Athletes (P > 0.05)

Correlations

 RPE Athletes and Coaches: r = 0.75 (P ≤ 0.05)

 sRPE Athletes and Coaches: r = 0.74 (P ≤ 0.05)

 Duration Athletes and Coaches: r = 0.65 (P ≤ 0.05)

Ieno et al. [28]

23.75 ± 4.86

167 ± 6.68

62.25 ± 6.16

Elite (Olympic

team)

2/2/4

Open-water swimmers

5 weeks (160 training sessions); (37.8% (60) easy, 44.1% (71) moderate and 18.1% (29) hard sessions); RPE, for easy, moderate and hard zones

CR10

RPE

Easy ≤ 3

Mod. 4–6

Hard ≥ 7

1 coach

RPE

 Easy zone: Coach = Athletes (P = 0.663)

 Moderate zone: Coach = Athletes (P = 0.110)

 Hard zone: Coach = Athletes (P = 0.149)

Imamura et al. [41]

Black belt: 21.5 ± 0.5 White belt:

19.9 ± 0.8

Black belt: 171.8 ± 7.4 White belt: 169.4 ± 4.6

Black belt:

66.8 ± 8.9

White belt: 59.9 ± 7.3

Fukuoka University Karate Club (Black belt: Japan National Karate Team and top competitors

in Japan)

14/0/14

Karate

1 session (1000 punches and 1000 kicks); Overall RPE

6 to 20

Borg scale

9 coaches

RPE

 1000 punches (black belt and white belt) and 1000 kicks (black belt): Coach > Athletes (P < 0.05)

 1000 kicks (white belt): Coach = Athletes (P > 0.05)

Inoue et al. [29]

33.1 ± 9.9

177.3 ± 6.7

71.1 ± 6.9

Trained

14/0/14

Road Cycling and Mountain Biking

2 weeks during the competitive period (146 training sessions); 11.6% (17) easy, 59.6% (87) moderate and 28.8% (42) hard sessions; RPE and sRPE for overall, easy, moderate and hard zones

CR10

RPE

Easy < 3

Mod. 3–5

Hard > 5

5 coaches (7.2 ± 4.1 yrs of coaching experience)

RPE

 Overall: Coaches = Athletes (P = 0.586)

 Easy zone: Coaches < Athletes (P = 0.013)

 Moderate zone: Coaches = Athletes (P = 0.651)

 Hard zone: Coaches = Athletes (P = 0.051)

sRPE

 Overall: Coaches = Athletes (P = 0.738)

 Easy zone: Coaches = Athletes (P = 0.073)

 Moderate zone: Coaches = Athletes (P = 0.664)

 Hard zone: Coaches = Athletes (P = 0.388)

Duration

 Overall: Coaches = Athletes (P = 0.717)

 Easy zone: Coaches = Athletes (P = 0.393)

 Moderate zone: Coaches = Athletes (P = 0.980)

 Hard zone: Coaches = Athletes (P = 0.853)

Correlations

 RPE Coaches and Athletes: r = 0.73 (P < 0.0001)

 sRPE Coaches and Athletes: r = 0.87 (P < 0.0001)

 Duration Coaches and Athletes: r = 0.95 (P < 0.0001)

Kraft et al. [30]

18–23

NR

NR

4 Division

intercollegiate athletic teams

NR/NR/56

Volleyball, Basketball, and Soccer

433 training

sessions (~ 45% (195) easy, ~ 48% (208) moderate and ~ 7% (30) hard sessions); RPE, RIE and ROE for overall, easy, moderate and hard zones

Generic 0 to 10 point scale using the Omni verbal cues for adults

RPE

Easy ≤ 4

Mod. 5–7

Hard ≥ 8

4 head

coaches

RPE

 Overall: Athlete's RPE < Coaches RIE, and ROE (P ≤ 0.05)

 Easy zone: Athlete's RPE < Coaches ROE (P ≤ 0.05)

 Moderate zone: Athlete's RPE < Coaches ROE (P ≤ 0.05)

 Hard zone: Athlete's RPE > Coaches ROE (P ≤ 0.05)

Correlations

 Athlete's RPE and Coaches ROE: r = 0.83 (P ≤ 0.05)

 Athlete's RPE and Coaches RIE: r = 0.65 (P ≤ 0.05)

Lupo et al. [45]

16.7 ± 0.5

178 ± 9

72 ± 9

Elite

0/15/15

Basketball

268 training sessions; Overall sRPE

CR10

4 coaches (1head and 2 assistant coaches, 1 physical trainer)

sRPE

 Strength training sessions: Coaches = Athletes (P > 0.05)

 Conditioning training sessions: Coaches > Athletes (P = 0.01)

 Technique training sessions: Coaches < Athletes (P < 0.001)

Medina et al. [42]

27 ± 5.1

175.9 ± 5.9

73.9 ± 6.1

Professional

12/0/12

Futsal

40 weeks (225 training sessions); Overall RPE

6 to 20

Borg scale

2 coaches

RPE

 Coaches = Athletes

Correlations

 Coaches and Athletes: r = 0.74 (P < 0.05)

Murphy et al. [49]

15.0 ± 1.2

167.0 ± 10.8

60.0 ± 14.2

Elite junior

8/6/14

Tennis

21 ± 3 training sessions

(16 weeks, 285 drills); RPE, drill physical RPE, drill mental RPE

CR10

6 coaches (10 ± 3 yrs

elite-level coaching experience)

RPE

 Coaches < Athletes (P < 0.01)

Correlations

 Coaches and Athletes: r = 0.59 (P < 0.05)

Nogueira et al. [31]

15.2 ± 0.57

170.1 ± 6.3

59.7 ± 5.7

State and National

10/7/17

Swimming

18 training sessions; 11.1% (2) easy, 83.3% (15) moderate and 5.6% (1) hard sessions; RPE for overall, easy, moderate and hard zones

CR10

RPE

Easy < 3

Mod. 3–5

Hard > 5

1 coach

RPE

 Overall: Coaches = Athletes (P > 0.05)

 Easy zone: Coaches = Athletes (P > 0.05)

 Moderate zone: Coaches = Athletes (P > 0.05)

 Hard zone: Coaches = Athletes (P > 0.05)

Oytun et al. [46]

20.7 ± 5.4

164.0 ± 6.7

62.8 ± 10.0

First division women’s handball league in North

Cyprus

0/56/56

Handball

57 training sessions, Overall sRPE

CR10

4 coaches

sRPE

 Coaches > Athletes (P =  < 0.02)

Correlations

 Coaches and Athletes: r = 0.93 (P < 0.01)

Rabelo et al. [20]

24.6 ± 3.8

176 ± 10

77.0 ± 9.6

Professional

18/0/18

Futsal

45 weeks (157 training sessions); NR n easy, NR n moderate and NR n hard sessions; RPE for easy, moderate, hard zones and season periods

CR10

RPE

2-step cluster to classify

easy,

moderate and hard zones

1 coach (> 3 yrs

experience)

RPE

 Coaches > Athletes (all season periods (Pre-season, first competitive period, intercompetition period and second competitive period) and intensity zones (easy, moderate and hard))

Redkva et al. [16]

24.1 ± 3.4

178.6 ± 6.1

78.3 ± 9.2

Professional

24/0/24

Soccer

22 training sessions (1465 min, 32% (470 min) = physical, 20% (290 min) = technical and 48% (705 min) = tactical training);

First 3 weeks of preseason; Overall RPE and sRPE

CR10

2 coaches:

1 technical coach

(8 yrs coaching

experience), 1 fitness coach

(20 yrs experience)

sRPE

 Overall: Coaches = Athletes (P = 0.70)

 Tactical training sessions: Coaches = Athletes (P > 0.05)

 Physical training sessions: Coaches = Athletes (P > 0.05)

 Technical training sessions: Coaches = Athletes (P > 0.05)

Correlations

 Coaches and Athletes: r = 0.60 (P < 0.003)

Rodrigues-Marroyo et al. [47]

21 ± 3

170.5 ± 6.6

63.7 ± 4.9

University team (Spanish volleyball third division)

0/12/12

Volleyball

15 weeks of training; Overall RPE and sRPE

CR10

4 coaches (2 experts (> 10 yrs experience), 2 beginners (≤ 1 yr experience)

RPE

 Overall: Coaches (experts and beginners) = Athletes (P > 0.05)

sRPE

 Overall: Coaches (experts and beginners) = Athletes (P > 0.05)

Correlations

 RPE Expert coaches and Athletes: r = 0.70 (P < 0.01)

 RPE Beginner coaches and Athletes: r = 0.72 (P < 0.01)

 sRPE Expert coaches and Athletes: r = 0.75 (P < 0.01)

 sRPE Beginner coaches and Athletes: r = 0.76 (P < 0.01)

Scantlebury et al. [32]

Hockey: 17.4 ± 0.8; Netball: 17.6 ± 0.6;

Rugby union:

17.2 ± 0.4 Soccer: 17.2 ± 0.8

Hockey: 164.7 ± 6.4; Netball: 167.8 ± 4.2; Rugby union:

79.9 ± 5.4; Soccer:

174.0 ± 0.05

Hockey:

60.0 ± 6.3; Netball:

58.0 ± 7.2; Rugby union:

83.6 ± 11.5 Soccer: 73.6 ± 7.1

Independent school

20/17/37

Hockey, Netball, Rugby union, and Soccer

219 training sessions; 28 easy, 125 moderate and 66 hard sessions; RPE, RIE and ROE for overall, easy, moderate and hard zones

CR10

RPE

Easy < 3

Mod. 3–4

Hard ≥ 5

4 coaches (1 per

sport). All coaches had

 > 5 yrs coaching

experience and had

worked with

participants for > 1 yr

RPE

 Overall: Athlete's RPE = Coaches RIE, and ROE

 Easy zone: moderate ≠ between Athlete's RPE and Coaches RIE (ES: 1.17; 95% CI 0.7 to 1.65) and Coaches ROE (ES: 0.83; 95% CI 0.4 to 1.28)

 Moderate zone: small ≠ between Athlete's RPE and Coaches RIE (ES: -0.36; 95% CI -0,56 to -0.11) and Coaches ROE (ES: -0.29; 95% CI -0.46 to -0.11)

 Hard zone: small ≠ between Athlete's RPE and Coaches RIE (ES: -0.46; 95% CI -0,72 to -0.20); trivial ≠ between Athlete's RPE and Coaches ROE (ES: -0.05; 95% CI -0.24 to 0.36)

Correlations

 Athlete's RPE and Coaches RIE: r = 0.39 (95% CI 0.27 to 0.49)

 Athlete's RPE and Coaches ROE: r = 0.63 (95% CI 0.54 to 0.70)

Sinnott-O’Connor et al. [33]

19 ± 4

NR

48.5 ± 7.6

World class (Irish Paralympic swimming

team)

1/3/4

Paralympic Swimmers

16 training sessions; NR n easy, NR n moderate and NR n hard sessions; sRPE for easy, moderate and hard zones

CR10

RPE

Easy < 3

Mod. 3–5

Hard > 5

1 coach

sRPE

 Easy zone: Coach < Athletes (P ≤ 0.05)

 Moderate zone: Coach < Athletes (P ≤ 0.01)

 Hard zone: Coach < Athletes (P ≤ 0.05)

Vaquera et al. [43]

16 ± 0.4

183.9 ± 5.8

NR

Junior Spanish national League

12/0/12

Basketball

6 weeks (15 training sessions); 7 games of one-a-side (1v1), 6 games of 2-a-side (2v2), 8 games of 5-a-side (5v5), and 5 games of superiority (3v2) situations; Overall RPE

CR10

1 coach (18 yrs

experience training

U16 and U18 players)

RPE

 Coach < Athletes (in all games, all P < 0.0001 apart from 5v5 P = 0.0019)

Viveiros et al. [48]

NR

NR

NR

Brazilian national team

NR/NR/40

Judo

4 training sessions; Overall RPE

CR10

4 separate coaches for

the sessions

RPE

 Overall: Coach < Athletes (P < 0.05)

Voet et al. [34]

M: 21 ± 3; F: 19 ± 0

NR

M: 69.1 ± 4.4; F: 60.8 ± 1.1

Semi-professional 2 females and 1 male cyclist (World Tour team)

9/2/11

Road Cycling

747 training sessions; NR n easy, NR n moderate and NR n hard sessions; RPE and sRPE for overall, easy, moderate and hard zones

6 to 20

Borg scale

RPE

Easy < 11

Mod. 11–14

Hard > 14

1 coach (5

yrs experience in coaching cyclists at UCI Continental

level, or higher)

RPE

 Overall: Coach = Athletes (P > 0.05)

 Easy zone: Coach > Athletes (P = 0.004)

 Moderate zone: Coach = Athletes (P > 0.05)

 Hard zone: Coach > Athletes (P < 0.001)

sRPE

 Overall: Coach = Athletes (P > 0.05)

 Easy zone: Coach = Athletes (P > 0.05)

 Moderate zone: Coach = Athletes (P > 0.05)

 Hard zone: Coach = Athletes (P > 0.05)

Duration

 Overall: Coach = Athletes (P > 0.05)

Correlations

 RPE Coach and Athletes: r = 0.73 (P < 0.05)

 sRPE Coach and Athletes: r = 0.87 (P < 0.05)

Wallace et al. [18]

22.3 ± 3.1

175.0 ± 9.0

71.8 ± 11.6

Well-trained (National level)

6/6/12

Swimming

3-month period (20 individual training

sessions); NR n easy, NR n moderate and NR n hard sessions; RPE and sRPE for easy, moderate and hard zones

CR10

RPE

Easy < 3

Mod. 3–5

Hard > 5

2 coaches (qualified swimming instructors)

RPE

 Easy zone: Coaches < Athletes (P < 0.05)

 Moderate zone: Coaches = Athletes (P > 0.05)

 Hard zone: Coaches > Athletes (P < 0.05)

sRPE

 Easy zone: Coaches = Athletes (P > 0.05)

 Moderate zone: Coaches = Athletes (P > 0.05)

 Hard zone: Coaches = Athletes (P > 0.05)

Correlations

 RPE Coaches and Athletes: r = 0.84 (P < 0.01)

 sRPE Coaches and Athletes: r = 0.85 (P < 0.01)

 Duration Coaches and Athletes: r = 0.86 (P < 0.01)