Table 1 Characteristics of included studies

Bennet et al. (2012) [50]

Competitive collegiate XC runners (unconfirmed) calibre)

77

43 (33)

19.3 (no SD)

1 XC season

ERLLP

26/59 (44.1%)

Navicular drop, plantarflexor endurance

Bring et al. (2018) [51]^a

Collegiate XC runners (NCAA DIII)

81^a

56 (45)

19.31 (1.12)

3 separate XC seasons

RRI

12/81 (14.8%)

Functional movement screen

Buist et al. (2010) [10]

Male and female novice runners

532

57.5 (306)

Female: 37.9 (9.9)

Male: 42.3 (9.9)

13 weeks

RRI

100/532 (486 at risk) (18.8%)

Hip internal and external rotation ROM, ankle joint ROM (knee flexed and extended), navicular drop

Davis et al. (2003) [52]

18–45 yo female competitive distance runners of ≥ 20 mi./week (unconfirmed) calibre)

18^b

100

Injured: 33.4 (8.2)

Uninjured: 29.9 (11.3)

Unclear

PFPS

9/18 (matched) (% unknown)

Running kinematics

Davis and Mullineaux (2016) [24]

18–45 yo female recreational runners of ≥ 20 mi./week

249

100

Injured: 26.40 (9.2)

Uninjured: 25.40 (9.2)

2 years

RRI

144/249 (all RRI) (57.8%)

103/249 (Dx Injuries) (44.1%)

Running kinetics

Desai and Gruber (2021) [59]

Recreational runners

39

61.5 (24)

Injured: 32.38 (11.68)

Uninjured: 31.11 (9.62)

6 months

RRI

21/39 (53.8%)

Running kinematics, coordinative variability

Hamill et al. (2007) [58]

18–45 yo female recreational runners of ≥ 20 mi./week

34

100

Injured: 26.8 (8.04)

Uninjured: 28.5 (12.1)

2 years

ITBS

17/400 (34 analysed)

Running kinetics

Hein et al. (2014) [14]

Recreational runners of ≥ 20 km/week

20^b

20 (4)

Control: 40 (7)

AT: 45 (5)

52 weeks

AT

10/142(AT) (20 analysed) (7%)

45/142 (RRI) (31.7%)

Strength measures: hip abduction and adduction, knee flexion and extension. Barefoot running kinematics

Hendricks and Phillips (2013) [19]^a

Running club members

50^a

32 (16)

46 (8.5)

16 weeks

RRI

16/50 (32%)

LLD, Q-angle, hip joint ROM (flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, internal and external rotation), knee flexion ROM, muscle strength (leg-press)

Hesar et al. (2009) [22]

New runners in a start-to-run program

131

85 (111)

39.09 (10.3)

10 weeks

RRI

27/131 (20.6%)

Running barefoot plantar pressure

Hespanhol et al. (2016) [20]

Recreational runners

89

23.6 (41)

44.2 (10.6)

12 weeks

RRI

24/89 (29.9%)

LLD, Q-angle, subtalar angle, plantar arch index

Hotta et al. (2015) [54]

18–24 year-old male competitive runners

84

0

20.0 (1.1)

6 months

RRI

15/84 (17.9%)

Functional movement screen

Jungmalm et al. (2020) [60]

Recreational runners

225

39.6 (89)

40.3 (8.1)

52 weeks

RRI

75/225 (33.3%)

Running kinematics, strength measures (hip abduction and adduction, knee flexion and extension, trunk flexion, extension, and rotation), strength ratios (hamstrings-quadriceps, trunk flexion–extension), joint ROM (hip flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, internal rotation and external rotation, knee flexion and extension, ankle dorsiflexion, plantarflexion, pronation, and supination), muscle flexibility (hamstrings, hip flexors), lower limb trigger points

Leetun et al. (2004) [15]^a

Collegiate XC runners (non-NCAA)

10^a

50 (5)

Injured: 33.4 (8.2)

Uninjured: 29.9 (11.3)

1 XC season

RRI

2/10 (20%)

Strength: hip abduction and external rotation, back extension, and lateral core

Lun et al. (2004) [4]

Recreational runners

87

49 (43)

38.0 (no SD)

6 months

RRI

69/87 (79.3%)

ROM: hip internal and external rotation, ankle joint dorsi- and plantarflexion. Q-angle, STJ varus and valgus, forefoot varus and valgus, foot posture (subjective classification), genu varum, LLD

Messier et al. (2018) [16]

Recreational runners

300

42.6 (128)

Injured: 42.3 (9.7)

Uninjured: 40.0 (10.3)

2 years

RRI

199/300 (66.3%)

Flexibility: hamstrings, quadriceps, ankle joint. Q-angle, arch index, muscle strength (hip, knee, ankle), running kinetics and kinematics

Napier et al. (2018) [25]

Healthy female recreational runners

65

100

Injured: 34.7 (7.8)

Uninjured: 37.4 (8.2)

15 weeks

RRI

22/65 (33.8%)

Running kinetics and kinematics

Noehren et al. (2007) [26]

18–45 yo healthy female recreational runners of ≥ 20 mi./week

36^b

100

Control: 26.8 (no SD)

ITBS: 28.5 (no SD)

2 years

ITBS

18/400 (36 in analysis) (4.5%)

Running kinetics and kinematics

Noehren et al. (2013) [27]

Healthy female runners of ≥ 20 mi./week who heel-strike

30^b

100

Control: 27 (10)

PFPS: 27 (10)

2 years

PFPS

15/400 (30 in analysis) (3.8%)

Running kinematics

Peterson et al. (2020 unpbl) [53]

Adult recreational runners

59

51 (30)

48 (13.4)

6 months

RRI

30/59 (50.8%)

FPI, navicular drop, ankle joint lunge (knee flexed and extended)

Shen et al. (2019) [28]

18–25 yo male recreational runners

30

100

Injured: 20.40 (1.2)

Uninjured: 19.70 (1.9)

8 weeks

ITBS

15/249 (30 in analysis) 6.0%

Running kinetics and kinematics

Stefanyshyn et al. (2006) [29]

20–50 yo runners of ≥ 20 km/week

80

48.7 (39)

Female: 35.9 (8)

Male: 39.8 (8.9)

6 months

PFPS

6/80 (12 in analysis) (7.5%)

Running kinetics (knee abduction impulse)

Thijs et al. (2008) [55]

Novice recreational runners in a start-to-run program

102

87 (89)

37 (9.5)

10 weeks

PFPS

17/102 (16.7%)

Plantar pressure measurement and FPI

Thijs et al. (2011) [17]

Female novice recreational runners in a start-to-run program

77

100

38 (9)

10 weeks

PFPS

16/77 (20.8%)

Q-angle and hip muscle strength (flexion and extension, abduction and adduction, internal and external rotation)

Torp et al. (2018) [18]

Healthy female recreational runners

50

100

39.1 (9.4)

16 weeks

RRI

15/50 (30.0%)

Isometric strength: knee flexion and extension, hip flexion and extension, hip external rotation, hip abduction

Van Der Worp et al. (2016) [56]

Adult women training for 5/10 km event

435

100

38.7 (11.5)

12 weeks

RRI

93/417 (12 did not run) (22.3%)

Navicular drop, 1st metatarsophalangeal joint extension

Van Ginkel et al. (2009) [23]

Novice runners in a start-to-run program

63

84 (53)

Injured: 38 (11.35)

Uninjured: 40 (9.0)

10 weeks

AT

10/63 (15.9%)

Plantar pressure measurement

Wen et al. (1998) [21]

Participants in a 32-week marathon training program

255

58 (143)

41.3 (10.8)

32 weeks

RRI

90/255 completions (35.3%)

Arch index, heel varus, tubercle-sulcus angle, knee varus, LLD

Winter et al. (2019) [61]

Recreational runners of different abilities (elite, advanced, intermediate, and slow)

76

39.4 (30)

Advanced injured 36.63 (10.13)

Advanced non-injured 37.27 (10.92)

Intermediate injured (47.07 (11.34)

Intermediate non-injured 50.67 (10.96)

Slow injured 36.46 (13.07)

Slow non-injured 53.00 (7.23)

1 year

RRI

39/76 (51.3%)

Spatiotemporal parameters using body-mounted accelerometry

Zifchock (2007) [57]

18–45 yo non-injured runners of ≥ 20 mi./week

29

55 (16)

Injured: 27.9 (7.6)

Uninjured: 31.1 (7.1)

9 months

RRI

14/29 (48.3%)

Running kinetics and kinematics, arch height index, Q-angle, hip abduction and external rotation strength, knee varus angle, hip internal rotation ROM