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Table 2 Summary of individual correlates and determinants of cardiorespiratory fitness

From: Correlates and Determinants of Cardiorespiratory Fitness in Adults: a Systematic Review

 

Related to CRF

Unrelated to CRF

Summary of associations

Reference numbers

Association (+/−)

Reference numbers

#

#+

#−

#0

Association (+/−)

Sociodemographic characteristics

 Age

23, (12m36, 59m36)

+

(12f15,59f17), 60f, 68m

43

2

38

3

− −

3m, 5m, 13f, (14, 67), 16f, 16m, 17m, 18, 22, 24, 27f, 27m, 28f, 29f, 29m, 30m, 32m, 33, 35m, 37f, 37m, 39f, 40, 45m, 47m, 53f, 54f, 54m, 56m16, 60m18, 61m, 65f, 65m, 68f, 69f, 69m, 72f, 72m

−

 Sex (women vs. men)

(14, 67), 22, 24, 33, 40, 18

−

 

6

 

6

 

−

 Ethnicity

19f, 12f, 12m37, 14f

 

14m

5

   

n/a

 Marital status (married vs. single)

45m

+

 

1

1

  

n/a

Socioeconomic status

 Education

6f, (12m5, 59m7), (12f5, 59f), 23m, 45m, 586

+

7f, 7m, (14m, 67), (14f, 67)

10

6

 

4

+

 Parental education

15 38

−

 

1

 

1

 

n/a

 Maternal education

15 39

+

 

1

1

  

n/a

 Paternal education

15 40

−

 

1

 

1

 

n/a

 Composite SES index

20f, 58

+

20m

3

2

 

1

+

 Occupation

58, 45m14

+

 

2

2

  

n/a

 Employment

45m

+

 

1

   

n/a

 Working mother

  

6m

1

  

1

n/a

 Income

45m

+

 

1

1

  

n/a

 Financial strain

5813

+

 

1

1

  

n/a

Anthropometric measures

 Body mass index

10m, 13f, 16f, 18, 23m, 37m, 37f, 59m, 59f, 64m1, 65m, 65f, 66m, 66f, 77m, 77f, 78m, 78f

−

7f, 7m, 16m

24

3

18

3

−

32m, 40, 56m

+

 Overweight

63f

−

67

2

 

1

1

n/a

 Obese

63f, 67

−

 

2

 

2

 

n/a

 Relative weight

11m, 11f

−

 

2

 

2

 

n/a

 Body shape

  

3m

1

  

1

n/a

 Waist circumference

13f, (14m, 77m), 16m, 16f, 23m, 30m, 30f, 78m, 78f

−

(77f, 14f)8

10

 

9

1

− −

 Waist-to-hip circumference ratio

47m

−

 

1

 

1

 

n/a

 Weight

6m

−

 

4

3

1

 

+

24, 35m, 47m

+

 Body fat (%)

10m, 33m, 33f, 39f, 61m, 68m, 68f2

−

 

7

 

7

 

+

 Total fat mass

72f, 72m

−

 

2

 

2

 

n/a

 Lean mass (%)

9, 22

+

 

2

2

  

n/a

 Total lean mass

72m, 72f

+

9

3

2

 

1

+

 Skeletal muscle mass

54m, 54f

+

 

2

2

  

n/a

 Sum subscapular

12m, 12f

−

 

2

 

2

 

n/a

 Appendicular lean mass/height squared

  

9

1

  

1

n/a

 Appendicular lean mass (%)

9

+

 

1

1

  

n/a

 Height

35m

+

10m

2

1

 

1

n/a

 Birth weight

64m

+

 

1

1

  

n/a

Vital parameters

 Heart rate, resting

10m, 11m, 11f, 47m, 56m, 67

−

 

6

 

6

 

−

 Heart rate, maximal exercise

47m

+

 

1

1

  

n/a

 Heart rate, after CRF test

66m, 66f4

−

 

2

 

2

 

n/a

 Mean blood pressure

56m, 68

−

 

2

 

2

 

n/a

 Systolic blood pressure

12m, 12f, 77m

−

77f

4

 

3

1

−

 Diastolic blood pressure

77m, 77f

−

 

2

 

2

 

n/a

 Forced expiratory volume in 1 s

47m, 59m3, 59f3

+

 

3

3

  

+

 Vital capacity

11m, 11f, 51

+

 

3

3

  

+

 Aortic augmentation index

10m

−

 

1

 

1

 

n/a

Comorbidities and medications

 Coronary heart disease

47m

−

 

1

 

1

 

n/a

 Asthma

47m

−

 

1

 

1

 

n/a

 Hypertension

  

67

1

  

1

n/a

 Diabetes

  

67

1

  

1

n/a

 Beta-blocker use

30f, 30m

−

 

2

 

2

 

n/a

 Shortness of breath upon exertion

  

32m

1

  

1

n/a

Biomarkers

 Bicarbonate

1

+

 

1

1

  

n/a

 Anion gap

1

−

 

1

 

1

 

n/a

 Vitamin D

4

+

 

1

1

  

n/a

 (High-sensitivity) C-reactive protein

2, 41, 44f, 44m

−

67

5

 

4

1

−

 Thyroid-stimulating hormone

369

  

1

   

n/a

 Hemoglobin

47m

+

 

1

1

  

n/a

 Fasting serum insulin

47m

−

24

2

 

1

1

n/a

 2-h glucose tolerance test

  

24

1

  

1

n/a

 Glucose, mg/dL

  

77m, 77f

2

  

2

n/a

 HbA1c, %

  

77m, 77f

2

  

2

n/a

 Ferritin

50m10

−

 

1

 

1

 

n/a

 High-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol

56m11, 77m, 77f

+

 

3

3

  

+

 Non-HDL cholesterol

56m12

+

 

1

1

  

n/a

 Cholesterol

77f

−

(67, 77m)

2

 

1

1

n/a

 Triglycerides

77m42

 

77f

2

  

1

n/a

 Creatinine excretion

21f, 21m

+

 

2

2

  

n/a

 White blood cell count

  

67

1

  

1

n/a

 Homocysteine

43f

−

43m

2

 

1

1

n/a

 Insulin-like growth factor (IGF) I

  

25f, 25m

2

  

2

n/a

 IGF-binding protein 3 (IGFBP-3)

  

25f, 25m

2

  

2

n/a

 IGF-I and IGF-I/IGFBP-3 ratio

  

25f, 25m

2

  

2

n/a

 Nonesterified fatty acid

  

24

1

  

1

n/a

 Red cell distribution width

9

−

 

1

 

1

 

n/a

 Flow-mediated dilation

  

26

1

  

1

n/a

 Nitroglycerin-mediated dilation

2633

+

 

1

1

  

n/a

Activity parameters

 Subjective measurements

 Overall PA

  PA index, various

11f, 11m, (12f, 59f), (12m, 59m), 33f, 33m, 37f, 37m, 38, 48m, 49m, 56m, 60f29, 60m29

+

10m, 49f, 65f, 65m, 76m

19

14

 

5

+

  PA level, high vs. low

73f 32

+

49f, 49m

3

1

 

2

 

  Failure to meet PA recommendation

  

63f

1

  

1

n/a

  PA times/week

23m, 47m, 66f, 66m

+

 

4

4

  

+

  PA duration (hours/week)

45m

+

 

1

1

  

n/a

  PA (in METS or MET minutes/week)

(14f, 6730), (14m, 6730), 38, (45m, 47m), 68m31, 70

+

68f

7

6

 

1

+

  Energy expenditure (kcal/week)

45m

+

 

1

1

  

n/a

  Moderate-to-vigorous PA

30f, 30m

+

 

2

2

  

n/a

  Moderate PA

39f

+

75

2

1

 

1

n/a

  Vigorous PA

75

+

 

1

1

  

n/a

  Proportion of vigorous PA/all PA

14f, 14m

+

 

2

2

  

n/a

 LTPA

  Regular exercise

  

32m

1

  

1

n/a

  Activity > 2 h/week

35m

+

 

1

1

  

n/a

  Training time (hours/week)

16f, 16m

−

 

2

 

2

 

n/a

  Leisure sports activities (yes vs. no)

7f, 74m

+

 

2

2

  

n/a

  LTPA, quartiles

22

+

 

1

1

  

n/a

  Intensity of LTPA (in METS)

61m

+

 

1

1

  

n/a

  LTPA, duration/day

  

61m

1

  

1

n/a

  Energy expenditure during active leisure time

48

+

 

1

1

  

n/a

  Caloric expenditure in sports activity

16f, 16m

+

 

2

2

  

n/a

  Membership in a sports club

  

7m

1

  

1

n/a

  Past participation (years of vigorous or moderate sporting activities)

  

49f, 49m

2

  

2

n/a

 Occupational PA

  Occupational PA

74m

+

45m

2

1

 

1

n/a

 Sedentary PA

  Sedentary PA

39f

−

 

1

 

1

 

n/a

 Other PA measures

  Satisfied with sports performance (yes)

  

7f, 7m

2

  

2

n/a

  Positive attitude toward swimming

  

6m

1

  

1

n/a

  Positive attitude toward soccer and handball

  

7f, 7m

2

  

2

n/a

  Positive attitude toward aerobic fitness

  

7f, 7m

2

  

2

n/a

 Objective measurements

  Accelerometer

  PA volume

  

52f

1

  

1

n/a

  PA intensity

52f

+

 

1

1

  

n/a

  Step count

13f

+

 

1

1

  

n/a

  Moderate-to-vigorous PA (continuous)

13f, 18, 42f, 42m

+

 

4

4

  

+

  Vigorous PA (continuous)

13f

+

 

1

1

  

n/a

  Vigorous PA (none vs. any)

18

  

1

1

  

n/a

  Sedentary PA

42f, 42m

−

 

2

 

2

 

n/a

 Physical fitness

  Knee extension torque

  

9

1

  

1

n/a

  Handgrip strength

  

9

1

  

1

n/a

  Bench press

7m

+

7f

2

1

 

1

n/a

  Sargent jump

6f

+

 

1

1

  

n/a

 Other

  Physical activity energy expenditure

24

+

 

1

   

n/a

Other health behaviors

 Smoking vs. non-smoking

8f, 8m, 11f, 11m, 22, 23m, 30m, 32m, (37f, 63f), 37m, 55m, 60m22, 60f22

−

14m, 16f, 16m, 24, 30f, 35m, (12f19, 59f21), ( 12m19, 59m21)

22

1

13

8

−

(14f, 67)41

+

 Number of cigarettes

56m20, 68m23

−

68f

3

 

2

1

−

 Alcohol

12f , 5724

+

12m27

3

2

 

1

+

 Carbohydrates (g/day)

47m

+

 

1

1

  

n/a

 Diet quality score

57f, 57m35

+

 

2

2

  

n/a

 Meat dietary pattern

57f26, 57m26

−

 

2

 

2

 

n/a

 Fruit–vegetable dietary pattern

57m28

+

57f

2

1

 

1

n/a

 Childhood television viewing

(31, 46)

−

 

1

 

1

 

n/a

 Adult television viewing

(31, 46)

−

 

1

 

1

 

n/a

 Sleep problems

6225

−

 

1

 

1

 

n/a

Other

 Commuting distance

3434

−

 

1

 

1

 

n/a

 Gestational age (mother)

64m

+

 

1

1

  

n/a

 Attachment loss (dental)

  

67

1

  

1

n/a

 Probing depth (dental)

  

67

1

  

1

n/a

 Preterm birth

  

71

1

1

  

n/a

  1. +: positive association; −: negative association; 0: null association; n/a: summary measure not applicable because the number of independent samples investigating the relationship is less than three. The numbers in the summary table refer to the reference number for each study. f: women only; m: men only. Samples from studies with longitudinal designs are marked in italic. Separate studies drawing on the same study population and reporting redundant exposures are presented in parentheses and were counted as one unit of analysis. CRF cardiorespiratory fitness, MET metabolic equivalent, LTPA leisure-time physical activity, PA physical activity, PWC physical working capacity
  2. 1Inverse U-shaped association
  3. 2Negatively associated with annual change in VO2max
  4. 3Significant association with test duration but not with work load 130
  5. 4Significant association with time to heart rate 130 but not with test duration
  6. 5Significant association with test duration but not with time to HR130
  7. 6Inverse U-shaped association (medium > high > low)
  8. 7Significant association with test duration but not with WL130
  9. 8Women with low CRF showed significantly higher waist circumference, compared with women with high CRF, in [77] (adjusted for “race” and age). Using the same data, in [14], women with high waist circumference did not show significantly different levels of CRF, compared with women with normal WC, after adjustment for multiple variables
  10. 9Lower VO2peak in the second quintile than in the third quintile of thyroid-stimulating hormone
  11. 10Lower odds of high fitness (VO2max) with elevated serum ferritin (> 300 ng/ml) vs. non-elevated serum ferritin (< 300 ng/ml)
  12. 11Significant association with PWC150/kg but not with PWC150, workload/heart rate, test duration, or workload
  13. 12Significant association with workload and workload/heart rate but not with PWC150, PWC150/kg, or test duration
  14. 13Higher METS with medium vs. low financial strain
  15. 14Higher mean VO2max among white-collar workers than among blue-collar workers and farmers
  16. 15Significant positive association with time to heart rate 130; significant negative association with test duration
  17. 16Significant association with workload, workload/heart rate, PWC150, and test duration but not with PWC150/kg
  18. 17Significant negative association with test duration only for black women; significant positive association with WL130 only for white women
  19. 18Significant association with exercise test duration only for white men (not for black men)
  20. 19Significant negative association with test duration; significant positive association with time to heart rate 130
  21. 20Significant negative association with workload, test duration, and workload/heart rate; no significant association with PWC150; significant positive association with PWC150/kg
  22. 21Significant negative association with test duration; significant positive association with PWC130
  23. 22Significant negative association with test duration for black men and black women; significant negative association with WL130 for white men and black women
  24. 23Significant negative association with annual change in VO2max
  25. 24Significant positive association with test duration for beer and wine but not for liquor
  26. 25Significant positive association of VO2max with repeated awakenings and daytime sleepiness but not with sleep initiation problems or early awakening
  27. 26Significant negative association of test duration with meat dietary pattern for white men and women
  28. 27Significant negative association with test duration; significant positive association with time to heart rate 130
  29. 28Significant positive association of test duration with fruit–vegetable dietary pattern for white men
  30. 29Significant positive association with test duration for all subgroups; significant positive association with PWC130 only for white men and white women
  31. 30Significant positive association for high vs. none activity in METmin/week
  32. 31Significant positive association with VO2max at first checkup
  33. 32Persistently active vs. persistently inactive; no significant association in other categories vs. persistently inactive
  34. 33Significant positive association only among non- or ex-smokers (not in current smokers)
  35. 34Significant negative association only for continuous measure of commuting distance and for 11–15 miles vs. 0–5 miles
  36. 35Significant positive association of test duration with a priori diet quality score for white men
  37. 36Significant positive association with time to heart rate 130; no significant association with test duration
  38. 37Significant positive association with test duration; no significant association with time to heart rate 130
  39. 38Significant higher risk of fitness decrease and lower risk of fitness persistence for medium vs. low parental education
  40. 39Significant higher risk of fitness persisting for high vs. low maternal education
  41. 40Significant lower risk of fitness persisting for medium vs. low parental education
  42. 41CRF was positively associated with smoking for both sexes in [67]. In [14], there was a positive association with smoking for women but not for men
  43. 42Significantly higher values for medium vs. high fitness but not for low vs. high fitness
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