Table 1 Study information
Study | Participants | Sample size | Player type | Methods | Awareness measured | Methods validity | Associations |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Case-control study | |||||||
Barnard [23] | 77 student athletes and 50 student non-athletes | 127 Case group (athletes): 32 M 45F Control group (non-athletes): 13 M 37F | Student-athletes | Questionnaire | Mental illness | *** | Athletes and non-athletes did not significantly differ in willingness to seek mental health treatment. Discrimination to mental illness: non-athletes > athletes. Willingness to seek psychological help: F > M. |
Fedor and Gunstad [24] | 382 college athletes and 230 college non-athletes | 612 Case group (athletes): 228 M 154F Control group (non-athletes): 77 M 153F | Student-athletes | Questionnaire | Concussion | *** | Concussion symptoms identification: athletes > non-athletes (p < 0.01) |
Cohort study | |||||||
Kroshus et al. [25] | 146 ice hockey players | 146 M 6 teams | Elite | Questionnaire | Concussion | **** | No statistically significant changes were observed in knowledge (p = 0.38), attitudes (p = 0.78) or perceived norms (p = 0.11). Inclination to play while concussed: before education > after education (lecture education: p = 0.02; email education p = 0.02). |
Cluster-randomised controlled trial | |||||||
Cusimano et al. [26] | 267 minor league hockey players | 267; 10-year olds competitive, 106; 10-year olds recreational, 60; 14-year olds competitive, 54; 14-year olds recreational, 47. | Elite | Questionnaire | Brain injuries | ** | Concussion knowledge: before video education < immediately after video education (p < 0.01). Concussion knowledge at 2 months: no significance between video and no-video groups (controlling for prior knowledge level, age and competitive level) (p = 0.52). Attitudes and behaviour scores at 2 months did not differ between groups p = 0.51. |
McKay et al. [27] | 31 female soccer teams, 29 coaches,258 players | Baseline: 47 coaches, 385 players Post-season: 29 coaches, 258 players | Elite | Questionnaire | Extremity injuries | **** | Postseason: players > coaches considered “inadequate warm-up” as a risk factor for injury (p < 0.01). The belief that injuries are preventable: coaches > players answer “yes” (p = 0.00). |
Grounded theory study | |||||||
Hachfeld et al. [28] | 23 student-athletes | 23 M | Student athletes | Focus group | Testicular cancer | *** | Student athletes were more likely to perform testicular self-examination than the general student population and physical awareness is the core structural process that influenced the action. |
Cross-sectional study | |||||||
Azodo et al. [29] | 156 basketball players | 156 124 M 32 F | Mixed | Questionnaire | Orofacial injuries | *** | The prevalence of injury was not significantly associated with demography, category, competition and duration of participation (p = 0.26). |
Berry et al. [30] | 158 players at 10 institutions of the Central Collegiate Hockey Association | 158 68 defensive, 90 offensive. Sex not indicated | Elite | Questionnaire | Orofacial injuries | *** | No one specific factor affecting attitudes was identified. Negative attitudes towards mouthguard usage: defensive players > offensive players (p < 0.05). |
Bhambhani et al. [31] | 99 Paralympians with spinal cord injuries | 99 85 M, 11 F 3 not indicated sex | Elite | Questionnaire | Autonomic dysreflexia | *** | The awareness of the signs/symptoms and consequences of boosting was not associated with their education level (p = 0.58) or injury duration (p = 0.22). |
Blank et al. [32] | 883 junior athletes’ parents | 883 409 M 474 F | Student-athletes | Questionnaire | Medicine use | *** | Knowledge: Male parents > female parents; Parental sex did not demonstrate a significant influence on attitudes towards doping (p < 0.01). |
Bloodgood et al. [33] | 252 youth athletes and 300 parents | Parents: 90 M 210F Youth: 207 M 45F | Student-athletes | Questionnaire | Brain Injury | *** | Agreed concussions are “a critical issue”: 13–15 years > 16–18 years (p < 0.05). Concussions are “a critical issue”: mothers> fathers (p < 0.05). Disagree “dumb for caring about concussions”: girls> boys (p < 0.05). |
Broglio et al. [34] | 727 soccer professionals | 727 650 athletes 43 coaches 34 medical staff Sex not indicated | Professional | Questionnaire | Concussion | *** | The following are reasons for not reporting concussions: Believe the injury was not serious (72.7%); not knowing it was a concussion (18.2%); not want the team down (4.5%); Believe concussions are part of the game (4.5%). |
Brown et al. [35] | 240 high school athletes (cross-country, volleyball, soccer, tennis, drill, cheer, colour guard, band, and swimming) and their 10 coaches | 240 F athletes, 10 coaches | Student-athletes | Questionnaire | Female triad risk | *** | Average triad knowledge score differed among teams (p = 0.01); triad awareness among athletes (average knowledge score was 2.79 ± 1.61 out of 8). |
Chan et al. [36] | 410 athletes from individual sports (athletics-track, athletics-field, badminton, gymnastics, swimming, and triathlon) and team sports (cricket, soccer, field hockey, basketball, rugby and water polo) | 410 227 M 183 F | Elite | Questionnaire | Medicine use | **** | When controlled motivation is low: autonomous motivation ↓ → doping intention ↑ (p < 0.01). When controlled motivation is high: no significant between autonomous motivation and doping intention (p = 0.57). When autonomous motivation was low: controlled motivation↓ → doping intention ↑ (p < 0.01); when autonomous motivation was low: no significant between controlled motivation and doping intention (p = 0.50). |
Coffey et al. [37] | 149 professional and semi-professional soccer players | 149 M | Professional | Questionnaire | Concussion | *** | Concussion report odds: defenders > other playing positions (p = 0.05). |
Cournoyer and Tripp [38] | 334 varsity high school soccer players | 334 Sex not indicated | Student-athletes | Questionnaire | Concussion | ** | No correlations were found between the method of education and the knowledge of symptoms or consequences of concussion (1 − β = 0.82). |
Kerr et al. [39] | 214 former NCAA collegiate athletes | 214 140 M 74 F | Mixed | Questionnaire | Concussion | *** | In low/noncontact sports: self-identified sports-related concussions non-disclosure: M > F (PR = 2.88). |
Kuhl et al. [40] | 94 equestrian riders | 94 27 M, 67 F 64 amateurs 30 professionals | Mixed | Questionnaire | Concussion | ** | Experience level did not influence the rates of concussion (p value not reported). |
Kurowski et al. [41] | 496 high school athletes | 496 384 M 112F 212 American football 123 soccer 89 basketball 72 wrestling | Student-athletes | Questionnaire | Concussion | *** | No association found between improved concussion knowledge and improved self-reported behaviours (p = 0.63); Age (p = 0.01) ↑ & female sex (p = 0.03) → concussion knowledge↑; Age (p = 0.01) ↓ & female sex (p = 0.00) & soccer participation (p = 0.02) → self-reported behaviours ↑. |
Ma [42] | 236 basketball players | 236 M 77 professionals 159 semi-professionals | Mixed | Questionnaire | Orofacial injuries | ** | The incidence of dental and oral injuries was related to the length of training time (p value not reported). |
McCrea et al. [43] | 1532 varsity soccer players from 20 high schools | 1532 Sex not indicated | Student-athletes | Questionnaire | Concussion | *** | No significant relationship found between a player’s prior concussion history and the likelihood of concussion reporting during the season. |
Meyers et al. [44] | 298 athletes in non-traditional non-NCAA sports (downhill skiing, martial arts, rock climbing, rodeo, skydiving and telemark skiing) and traditional NCAA sports (equestrian, golf, swimming/diving, tennis and track) | 298 F 152 non-NCAA athletes 146 traditional NCAA athletes | Mixed | Questionnaire | Pain-coping | *** | Women athletes pain-coping traits: non-traditional individual-sport activity < coach-structured traditional NCAA sports (Wilks’ λ F6,291 = 12.92; p = 0.00). |
Miyashita et al. [45] | 454 high school athletes | 454 242 M 212 F | Student-athletes | Questionnaire | Concussion | ** | Participants were asked if the importance of a game/event should dictate when they are allowed to return to play, and 50.9% stated “yes” with no difference between sexes (p = 0.10) or age (p = 0.19). |
Muwonge et al. [46] | 360 professional athletes (basketball, soccer, handball, rugby, athletics and cycling) | 360 218 M 142 F | Professional | Questionnaire | Medicine use | **** | Female athletes mean PEAS scores: with a prior doping history > without doping history (p = 0.10) |
Norcross et al. [47] | 66 soccer and basketball coaches from 15 high schools | 66 coaches: 16 boys soccer 17 girls soccer 18 boys basketball 15 girls basketball | Student-athletes | Questionnaire | Lower extremity injury | *** | Coaches’ injury prevention programs awareness: girls’ team > boys’ team (p = 0.00); Soccer > basketball (p = 0.05). |
Onyeaso and Adegbesan [48] | 42 coaches of secondary school athletes | 42 25 M 17 F | Student-athletes | Questionnaire | Orofacial injuries | ** | Statistically significant association (p < 0.05) was found between the sports and usage of mouthguards by the athletes as claimed by the coaches. |
Overbye [49] | 775 elite athletes from 40 sports | 775 465 M 310 F | Elite | Questionnaire | Medicine use | *** | Interests in anabolic-androgenic steroids use: M > F (p = 0.00); Speed and power sports athletes> motor-skill sport athletes (p = 0.02); Team sports athletes >motor-skill sport athlete (p = 0.08); Endurance sport athletes > motor-skill sport athletes (p = 0.15). |
Register-Mihalik [50] | 167 high school athletes | 167 97 M 55 F | Student-athletes | Questionnaire | Concussion | *** | No association found between increased athlete knowledge and attitude and prevalence of playing while experiencing concussion symptoms (p = 0.84). |
Reuter and Short [51] | 154 noncontact/limited-contact sports athletes | 154 Swimming 27 M 18 FTrack 26 M 28 FBaseball 25 M | Elite | Questionnaire | Perceived risk of injury | ** | Uncontrollable injury scores showed a significant difference between 3 sports (all about p = 0.00) with baseball players fearing the most risk and swimmers fearing the least. Risk of controllable injuries showed a significant difference between swimming and baseball (p = 0.01) with baseball players fearing the most risk and swimmers the least. Risk of upper body injury scores indicated a significant difference between track and swimming (p = 0.00) and track and baseball (p = 0.00). Swimmers reported the most fear of upper body injury while track athletes scored the lowest. Risk of re-injury scores indicated a significant difference between track and baseball (p = 0.00), and baseball and swimming (p = 0.00). |
Shendell et al. [52] | 1138 endurance athletes (full marathon, half marathon, and wheelchair athletes) | 1138 499 M 639 F | Mixed | Questionnaire | Asthma | **** | About 12.10% participants reported physician-diagnosed asthma; 84.6% correctly knew an asthma action plan can prevent hospitalizations; 18.0% reported they had an asthma action plan;24.8% had ever been asked to demonstrate medication use (controller and/or rescue inhaler) but only 2 people performed daily peak flow measurements. |
Short et al. [53] | 434 contact sports athletes | 434 Hockey, 86 M 76 F Soccer. 32 M 32 F American football, 208 M | Elite | Questionnaire | Perceived risk of injury | ** | Worry/concern↑ → probability of injury↑ (p < 0.01). Worry/concern ↑ → confidence in avoiding injury↓ (p < 0.01). Perceived probability of injury↑ → confidence in avoiding injury↓ (p < 0.01). Confidence in avoiding injury: M soccer previous injured< M hockey Previous injured (ES = 0.52). Confidence in avoiding injury: M soccer uninjured > M hockey uninjured (ES = 0.68). Confidence in avoiding injury: F uninjured > F previous injured (ES = 0.38. Perceived probability of injury: F previous injured > M previous injured (ES = 0.72). Confidence in avoiding injury: F soccer >F hockey (ES = 0.86). Worry/concern about injury: F hockey >F soccer (ES = 0.85). Worry/concern: M soccer> M hockey (ES = 0.25). |
Shroyer and Stewart [54] | 53 rural high school coaches | 53 17 M 36 F | Student-athletes | Questionnaire | Concussion | ** | 13% of coaches knew and 48% did not know high school athletes take longer to recover from a concussion than do older athletes. |
Sorkkila, Aunola and Ryba [55] | 391 student-athletes from 6 upper secondary sport schools and their parents | 391 student-athletes: 49% M 51% F 448 parents: 188 M 260 F | Student-athletes | Questionnaire | Burnout | *** | The higher success expectations in sport: school burnout group > mild sport burnout group (p < 0.01); The higher success expectations in school: mild sport burnout group > school burnout group (p < 0.05). |
Strotmeyer and Lystad [56] | 175 amateur Muay Thai fighters | 175 114 M 61 F | High-performance amateur | Questionnaire | General injuries | *** | Muay Thai fighters perceived the risk of injury in their own sport to be average and significantly lower than that in other collision and contact sports (p < 0.01). |
Tiwari et al. [57] | 320 national and international level players (wrestling, karate judo, boxing, Wushu, fencing, taekwondo, hockey, canoeing and kayaking, rowing, sailing, horse riding, and shooting) | 320 213 M 2017 F | Professional | Questionnaire | Orofacial injuries | ** | Awareness and use of mouthguards: contact sports athletes > noncontact sports athletes (p = 0.00). |
Tulunoglu and Oezbek [58] | 274 semi-professional or amateur boxers and taekwondo players | 274 174 M 100 F | Mixed | Questionnaire | Orofacial injuries | ** | Mouthguard awareness: players with a dental trauma experience > players without a dental trauma experience (p = 0.00); Players with a facial trauma experience > players without a facial trauma experience (p = 0.01). |
Therkorn and Shendell [59] | 120 participants including college athletes, coaches and athlete parents/guardians | 120 26 coaches 37 college athletes 57 athlete parents/guardians | Student-athletes | Questionnaire | Asthma | ** | The percentage of correct responses by coaches to 5 asthma knowledge questions ranged from 12% to 88%. |
Williams et al. [60] | 26 professional soccer players | 26 M | Professional | Questionnaire, interview | Concussion | **** | The mean score on concussion knowledge was 16.4 ± 2.9 (range 11–22) and the attitude score was 59.6 ± 8.5 (range 41–71); The interview responses identified inconsistencies between the concussion knowledge/attitude and the intended behaviours, endorsing multiple concussion misconceptions, and revealed barriers to concussion reporting. |
Zech and Wellmann [61] | 139 professional and youth players | 139 24 First Team players 18 U23 players 25 U19 players 17 U17 players 20 U16 players 35 U15 players Sex not indicated | Mixed | Questionnaire | General injuries | *** | Perceptions on risk factors for injuries: athletes with previous injuries > athletes without previous injuries (fatigue: p = 0.04; previous injuries: p = 0.01; environment p = 0.00). |