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Table 2 Summary of the included interventions

From: Follow-up efficacy of physical exercise interventions on fall incidence and fall risk in healthy older adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis

No.

Study

Participantsa,b

Exercise protocol

Intervention and follow-up

Outcome

1

Ballard et al. [90]

Total: n = 39

IG: n = 20, 72.4 ± 6.5 years, 20 F

CG: n = 19, 73.4 ± 5.4 years, 19 F

Functional balance exercises (one leg balance tasks, half squats, lunges, and standing leg raises), strength exercises with elastic bands while seated (2 sets of 10 repetitions), low-impact aerobics routine (walking, stepping, and lunging in different directions while using intermittent arm motions)

Intervention:

Duration: 3.8 months

Session: 1 h

Frequency: 3×/week

Format: group

Home exercise: no

Follow-up: 12 months

No significant reduction in fall rate and risk

2

Beyer et al. [50]

Total: n = 53

IG: n = 24, 78.6 ± 5.1 years, 24 F

CG: n = 29, 77.6 ± 4.4 years, 29 F

Standard resistance exercise (70–75% of 1 RM), balance training, and flexibility

Intervention:

Duration: 6 months

Session: 1 h

Frequency: 2×/week

Format: group

Home exercise: no

Follow-up: 12 months (starting from begin of study)

No significant reduction in fall risk

3

Fitzharris et al. [73]

Total: n = 272, 76.1 ± 5 years

IG: n = 135

CG: n = 137

Strength and balance exercises supplemented with daily home exercises, 30–35% of the exercise contents were balance related

Intervention:

Duration: 3.8 months

Session: 1 h

Frequency: 1×/week

Format: group

Home exercise: yes

Follow-up: up to 18 months (starting from begin of study)

Significant reduction in fall rate and risk

4,5

Freiberger et al. [82]a,b

Total: n = 217

IG (a): n = 65 (62 analyzed), 76.4 ± 4.2 years, 31 F

IG: (b): n = 69 (65 analyzed), 75.4 ± 3.8 years, 27 F

CG: n = 83 (74 analyzed), 76.5 ± 3.9 years, 39 F

IG (a): strength (20%), balance (20%), motor coordination (30%), competence (15%), and perceptual training (15%)

IG (b): strength and flexibility training (33%), balance and motor coordination training (33%), and endurance training (33%)

Intervention for (a) and (b):

Duration: 4 months

Session: 1 h

Frequency: 2×/week

Format: group

Home exercise: yes

Follow-up: 12 months

Significant reduction in fall rate and risk in IG (b)

6

Halvarsson et al. [94]

Total: n = 59

IG: n = 38 (30 analyzed), 76 years, 21 F

CG: n = 21 (18 analyzed), 78 years, 15 F

Progressive balance training program that includes dual- and multi-task exercises (cognitive and/or motor)

Intervention:

Duration: 3 months

Session: 45 min

Frequency: 3×/week

Format: group

Home exercise: no

Follow-up: 15 months (starting from begin of study)

No significant reduction in fall rate and risk

7, 8

Iliffe et al. [83]a,b

Total: n = 572

IG: (a): n = 184, 72.9 years

IG: (b): n = 178, 72.8 years

CG: n = 210, 73.1 years

IG (a): Fall-management exercise program of progressive muscle strengthening, progressive balance retraining, bone loading, endurance (including walking) and flexibility training, functional floor skills, and adapted Tai Chi

IG (b): Moderate intensity muscle strength, balance retraining, and walking plan

Intervention:

Duration: 6 months

Session: 1 h for group-based, 30 min for home-sessions

Frequency: 3×/week

Format: IG (a) home and group-based, IG (b) home-based only

Home exercise: yes

Follow-up: 18 months after the end of intervention

Significant reduction in fall rate

9

Kamide et al. [95]

Total: n = 57

IG: n = 28 (23 analyzed), 71.0 ± 3.8 years, 23 F

CG: n = 29 (27 analyzed), 70.9 ± 3.4 years, 27 F

Thera-Band moderate intensity strength exercises for hip and knee, four exercises, 1–2 sets of 15 repetitions, balance training in terms of fast stepping exercises in AP and ML directions 10 repetitions in each direction for right and left leg, and impact training in form of heel drop and tip toes exercises, 60–100 repetitions

Intervention:

Duration: 6 months

Session: not stated

Frequency: 3×/week

Format: home-based

Home exercise: yes

Follow-up: 6 months after the end of intervention

No significant reduction in fall rate and risk

10,11,12

Karinkanta et al. [51]a,b,c

Total: n = 149

IG: (a): n = 37 (33 analyzed), 72.7 ± 2.5 years, 33 F

IG: (b): n = 37 (31 analyzed), 72.9 ± 2.3 years, 31 F

IG: (c): n = 38 (30 analyzed), 72.9 ± 2.2 years, 30 F

CG: n = 37 (26 analyzed), 72 ± 2.1 years, 26 F

IG (a): Progressive resistance training with an intensity from 50 to 80% of 1 RM

IG (b): Balance-jumping training: balance and agility training, jumps, modified and step aerobics, and impact exercises

IG (c): Combined training: resistance and balance-jumping training in alternating weeks

Intervention:

Duration: 12 months

Session: 50 min

Frequency: 3×/week

Format: group

Home exercise: no

Follow-up: 12 months after the end of intervention

Significant reduction in fall rate and risk

13

Li et al. [89]

Total: n = 256, 77.48 ± 4.95 years, 179 F

IG: n = 125 (95 analyzed)

CG: n = 131 (93 analyzed)

Tai Chi Yang style

Intervention:

Duration: 6.5 months

Session: 1 h

Frequency: 3×/week

Format: group

Home exercise: no

Follow-up: 6 months

Significant reduction in fall rate and risk

14

Liu-Ambrose et al. [96]

Total: n = 59

IG: n = 31 (28 analyzed), 81.4 ± 6.2 years, 22 F

CG: n = 28 (24 analyzed), 83.1 ± 6.3 years, 19 F

Otago exercise program of balance and strength retraining exercises

Intervention:

Duration: 6 m

Session: 30 min

Frequency: 3×/week

Format: home-based

Home exercise: yes

Follow-up: 6 months

Significant reduction in fall rate and risk

15

Logan et al. [129]

Total: n = 204, 78.86 years

IG: n = 102 (82 analyzed), 67 F

CG: n = 102 (75 analyzed), 65 F

Strength, balance exercises, and occupational functional therapy.

Intervention:

Duration: 1.5 months

Session: 2 h

Frequency: 2×/week

Format: group

Home exercise: yes

Follow-up: 12 m

Significant reduction in fall rate and risk

16

Logghe et al. [97]

Total: n = 269

IG: n = 138 (114 analyzed), 77.5 ± 4.7 years, 96 F

CG: n = 131 (99 analyzed), 76.8 ± 4.6 years, 95 F

Tai Chi Yang style (10 positions)

Intervention:

Duration: 3.2 months

Session: 1 h

Frequency: 2×/week

Format: group

Home exercise: yes

Follow-up: 12 months

No significant reduction in fall rate and risk

17

Lord et al. [101]

Total: n = 197

IG: n = 100 (75 analyzed), 71.6 ± 5.5 years

CG: n = 97 (94 analyzed), 71.7 ± 5.3 years

Strength exercises: lifting one’s own body weight (push up exercise), opposing muscle group resistive exercises, balance training: standing on the one leg, hand-eye and foot-eye coordination, ballgames requiring catching with the one hand while standing or moving, kicking a moving ball, throwing to a moving target, running under a skipping rope, and team ballgames

Intervention:

Duration: 12  months (four 10–12 weeks terms) with 2 weeks interterm breaks and 5 weeks holiday break.

Session:1  h

Frequency: 2×/week

Format: group

Home exercise: no

Follow-up: 12 months

No significant reduction in fall rate and risk

18

Means et al. [86]

Total: n = 99

IG: n = 47 (31 analyzed), 75 ± 4.9 years

CG: n = 52 (34 analyzed), 75 ± 5.7 years

Balance and mobility exercises: postural control, flexibility, endurance walking, and muscle coordination exercises with training on obstacle courses

Intervention:

Duration: 1.5  months

Session: 1 h

Frequency: 3×/week

Format: group

Home exercise: no

Follow-up: 6  months

No significant reduction in fall rate

19

Means et al. [98]

Total: n = 338, 73.5 years, 193 F

IG: n = 181 (144 analyzed)

CG: n = 157 (94 analyzed)

Balance, strength, and mobility program: Active stretching, postural control, endurance walking, and coordination exercises to improve balance and mobility, strengthening exercises for abdomen, upper, and lower limb muscles

Intervention:

Duration: 1.5 months

Session: 90 min

Frequency: 3×/week

Format: group

Home exercise: no

Follow-up: 6  months

Significant reduction in fall rate and risk

20

Morgan et al. [84]

Total: n = 229

IG: n = 119, 81 ± 7.6 years, 86 F

CG: n = 110, 80.1 ± 7.4 years, 76 F

Low-intensity exercise program in sitting and standing postures targeting muscle strength and joint flexibility

Intervention:

Duration: 2 months

Session: 45 min

Frequency: 3×/week

Format: group

Home exercise: no

Follow-up: 12 months

Significant reduction in fall risk in participants with low physical function level

21

Salminen et al. [130]

Total: n = 591

IG: n = 293 (290 analyzed), 251 F

CG: n = 298 (292 analyzed), 246 F

Balance, coordination and weight shifting exercises, and circuit training for muscle strength

Intervention:

Duration: 12 months

Session: 45  min

Frequency: 1×/2 weeks

Format: group

Home exercise: yes

Follow-up: 24 months after the end of intervention

Significant reduction in fall rate and risk

22

Suzuki et al. [99]

Total: n = 52

IG: n = 28 (22 analyzed), 77.31 ± 3.40 years

CG: n = 24 (22 analyzed), 78.64 ± 4.39 years

Muscle strength training, balance, and gait training, and Tai Chi exercises

Intervention:

Duration: 6 months

Session: 1 h

Frequency: 1×/2 weeks

Format: group

Home exercise: yes

Follow-up: 20 months

Significant reduction in fall rate and risk

23,24

Taylor et al. [76]a,b

Total: n = 684

IG (a): n = 233 (180 analyzed), 75.3 ± 7.0 years, 161 F

IG (b): n = 220 (174 analyzed), 74.4 ± 6.2 years, 165 F

CG: n = 231 (174 analyzed), 73.7 ± 6.2 years, 176 F

IG (a): Tai Chi exercises once weekly

IG (b): Tai Chi exercises twice weekly

Intervention:

Duration: 5 months

Session: 1 h

Frequency: 1×/week (IG a), 2×/week (IG b)

Format: group

Home exercise: no

Follow-up: 17 months from study entry point

No significant reduction in fall rate and risk

25

Trombetti et al. [88]

Total: n = 134

IG: n = 66 (56 analyzed), 75 ± 8 years, 64 F

CG: n = 68 (56 analyzed), 76 ± 6 years, 65 F

Music-based multi-task exercise program (i.e., Jaques-Dalcroze eurhythmics), e.g., handling of objects (balls), walking in time to the music, and responding to changes in the music’s rhythmic patterns. The exercises challenged the balance by requiring multidirectional weight shifting, walk-and-turn sequences, and exaggerated upper body movements during walking and standing

Intervention:

Duration: 6.2 months

Session: 1 h

Frequency: 1×/week

Format: group

Home exercise: no

Follow-up: 6 months

Significant reduction in fall rate and risk

26

Uusi-Rasi et al. [87]

Total: n = 175

IG: n = 86, 74.8 ± 2.9 years, 86 F

CG: n = 89, 73.8 ± 3.1 years, 89 F

Progressive strength, balance, agility, and mobility training.

Intervention:

Duration: 24 m

Session: 1 h

Frequency: 2×/week in the first year, 1×/week in the second year

Format: group

Home exercise: no

Follow-up: 24 months after the end of intervention

No significant reduction in fall rate

27

Weerdesteyn et al. [100]

Total: n = 113

IG: n = 79 (78 analyzed), 73.4 ± 5.4 years, 63 F

CG: n = 28 (28 analyzed), 74.9 ± 6.5 years, 19 F

Balance, gait, and coordination training in an obstacle course; e.g., walking over stepping stones. The second session in the week: walking with different speeds and directions. Practicing fall techniques in forward, backward, and lateral directions

Intervention:

Duration: 1.2 months

Session: 1.5 h

Frequency: 2×/week

Format: group

Home exercise: no

Follow-up: 7 months

Significant reduction in fall rate and risk

28

Whitehead et al. [85]

Total: n = 140

IG: n = 70 (58 analyzed), 79.5 ± 6.8 years, 48 F

CG: n = 70 (65 analyzed), 76.1 ± 6.9 years, 52 F

No exercise descriptions are stated

Intervention:

Duration: 3 months

Session: 1–2 h

Frequency: 1–2×/week

Format: group

Home exercise: no

Follow-up: 6 months (from the moment of group assignment)

No significant reduction in fall risk

29

Yamada et al. [78]

Total: n = 60

IG: n = 30 (29 analyzed)

CG: n = 30 (29 analyzed)

Trail-walking exercise: walking (multidirectional steps in the forward, backward, lateral, and oblique directions) from/around numbered flags. In addition to 20-min moderate intensity aerobic exercise, 20-min progressive strength training, 10-min flexibility and balance exercises

Intervention:

Duration: 4 months

Session: 1.5 h

Frequency: 1×/week

Format: group

Home exercise: no

Follow-up: 12 months

No significant reduction in fall rate and risk

30

Yamada et al. [79]

Total: n = 157

IG: n = 78 (72 analyzed), 85.8 ± 5.9 years, 63 F

CG: n = 79 (73 analyzed), 85.3 ± 5.7 years, 64 F

Complex obstacle negotiation exercise; adding obstacles to the area of trail walk exercises and increasing the difficulty throughout the training

Intervention:

Duration: 6 months

Session: 45 min

Frequency: 1×/week

Format: group

Home exercise: no

Follow-up: 12 months

Significant reduction in fall rate and risk

31

Yamada et al. [77]

Total: n = 264

IG: n = 132 (112 analyzed), 76.2 ± 8.5 years, 67 F

CG: n = 132 (118 analyzed), 77.2 ± 7.6 years, 65 F

Multi-target stepping tasks in the form of walking in different zigzag patterns, moderate intensity aerobic exercise (5 min), progressive strength training (10 min), flexibility, and balance exercises (15 min)

Intervention:

Duration: 6 months

Session: ~ 35 min

Frequency: 2×/week

Format: group

Home exercise: no

Follow-up: 12 months

Significant reduction in fall rate and risk

  1. Unless otherwise indicated, the CG did not exercise. The studies followed by the letters a or b or c mean that they include different intervention groups, and each letter resembles one intervention group
  2. F female, IG intervention group, CG control group, AP anteroposterior, ML medio-lateral, RM repetition maximum
  3. aAge data are mean ± standard deviation
  4. bThe number in parentheses indicates is the number of the participants who continued the follow-up duration to the end, and their fall diaries were included in the final analysis