Table 1 Studies (n = 17) examining learning effects on motor performance and measures of EMG amplitude

Hobart et al. [12]

31; 20–30 years

Submaximal effort task: target-oriented underhand ball toss; 1 session; 150 trials/session

Agonist muscles: pectoralis major, anterior deltoideus;

Antagonist muscles: posterior deltoideus, triceps brachii

Payton et al. [14]

27; 20–34 years

Submaximal effort task: target-oriented propelling of a plastic disc; 1 session, 100 trials/session

Agonist muscle: abductor digiti quinti

Hobart et al. [13]

20; 20–30 years

Submaximal effort task: target-oriented underhand ball toss; 1 session; 104 trials/session

Agonist muscle anterior deltoideus;

Antagonist muscle: posterior deltoideus

Moore and Marteniuk [4]

8; college-aged

Submaximal effort task: time-constrained (200 ms or 500 ms) 45° horizontal forearm extension; 4 sessions, 100 trials/session

Agonist muscle: triceps brachii;

Antagonist muscle: biceps brachii

Darling and Cooke [22]

22; NR

Maximal effort task: target-oriented elbow flexion and extension (step tracking) with increased movement velocity; 1 session, 120 trials/session

Agonist and antagonist muscle: biceps brachii, triceps brachii

Engelhorn [9]

16; 21 years

Submaximal effort task: time-constrained horizontal elbow flexion; 2 sessions, 120 trials/session

Agonist muscle: biceps brachii;

Antagonist muscle: triceps brachii

Dugas and Marteniuk [15]

16; college-aged

Submaximal effort task: target-oriented 70° and time-constrained (900 ms) forearm extension; 2 sessions, 100 trials/session

Agonist muscle: triceps brachii; Antagonist muscle: biceps brachii

Corcos et al. [19]

5; 20–25 years

Maximal effort task: rapid elbow flexion; 7 sessions, 200 trials/session

Agonist muscle: biceps brachii;

Antagonist muscle: triceps brachii

Heise [7]

18; 22 ± 2 years

Submaximal effort task: target-oriented multi-joint throw; 1 session, 55 trials/session

Agonist muscles: triceps brachii, posterior deltoideus

Gabriel and Boucher [6]

18; 26 ± 3 years

Maximal effort task: target-orientated rapid (as fast as possible) elbow flexion (0° to 75°-90°); 4 sessions, 100 trials/session

Agonist muscle: biceps brachii;

Antagonist muscle: triceps brachii

Aggelousis et al. [8]

41; 19–26 years

Submaximal effort task: target-oriented ball throw by performing an elbow flexion; 1 session, 90 trials/session

Agonist muscles: biceps brachii, brachioradialis;

Antagonist muscles: triceps brachii, anconeus

Gabriel [16]

8; 25–30 years

Maximal effort task: target-orientated rapid (as fast as possible) elbow flexion; 4 sessions, 100 trials/session

Agonist muscle: biceps brachii;

Antagonist muscle: triceps brachii

Lay et al. [5]

6; 18–21 years

Submaximal effort task: ergometer rowing at a fixed power output (100 W); 10 sessions, 16 min/session

Agonist muscles: vastus lateralis, biceps brachii

Christou et al. [21]

14; 24 ± 2 years

14; 72 ± 4 years (excluded from data analysis)

Submaximal effort task: target-oriented isometric contractions (abduction of the index finger); 1 session including 5 blocks, 20 trials/block

Agonist muscle: interosseus dorsalis I;

Antagonist muscle: interosseus palmares II

Klein Breteler et al. [17]

9; 29 years

Submaximal effort task: manual spelling of words; 1 session including 7 blocks, 42 trials/block

Agonist and antagonist muscles: dorsal interosseus, abductor pollicis brevis, flexor pollicis brevis, abductor digiti minimi, flexor digitorum superficialis

Hasson et al. [18]

9; 25 ± 4 year

Submaximal effort task: target-oriented force production while maintaining a constant pedaling speed; 1 session, 18 trials/session

Agonist and antagonist muscles: tibialis anterior, soleus, vastus lateralis, medial gastrocnemius, rectus femoris, semitendinosus

Liang et al. [20]

12; 22–50 years

Maximal effort task: ballistic (maintain maximum velocity) wrist flexion; 10 sessions, 10 trials/session

Agonist muscle: flexor carpi radialis;

Antagonist muscle: extensor carpi radialis